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Comparative Effectiveness of 

Some Visual Aids in 

Seventh Grade 

Instruction 



Weber 




Class 17^)6^^ 

Book ■ V'V ^ 

Gopyiight '}^^.. 



CilPlfRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF SOME VISUAL AIDS 
IN SEVENTH GRADE INSTRUCTION 



By Joseph J. Weber 



Submitted to the Department of Educational Re- 
search and the Faculty of the Graduate School of 
Columbia University in partial fulfillment of the re- 
quirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. 

December, 1921. 



Copyright by Joseph J. Weber, July, 1922 



Published by 

THE EDUCATIONAL SCREEN, INC. 

5200 Harper Ave. Chicago, Illinois, U. S. A. 



CONTENTS \X^ 



^k 



\k|A' Page 
SECTION I. THE PROBLEM STATED •. 1 7 

SECTION II. ANALYSIS OF THE PROBLEM 8 

Verbal transfer 8 

Possibilities of photography 9 

Secondary problems stated 10 

SECTION III. PRIMARY SENSE EXPERIENCES 11 

Introductory 11 

Form for judgment study 11 

Random sampling of thousand commonest words 12 

Discussion of objections 14 

Summary of findings and illustrative diagram 15 

Formulas and conclusion 15 

SECTION IV. EXPERIMENT A— MOVING PICTURES IN COMBI- 
NATION WITH VERBAL INSTRUCTION 17 

Introductory 17 

Lesson on the Country of the Mahrattas 18 

How the experiment was conducted 20 

Questionnaire on the first lesson 21 

Working plan for the entire experiment 28 

Lesson on Chinese Scenes 24 

Questionnaire on the second lesson 28 

Lesson on Japan, The Industrious 30 

Questionnaire on the third lesson 33 

Summary of choices showing varjdng influences 35 

Figure 1, illustrating method of converting original steps into 

T-Scale units 37 

Table showing S. D. distances for given percents 38 

Summary of gross averages and their differences 39 

Figure 2, illustrating method of equating groups 40 

Formula for obtaining the reliability of the averaged mean 42 

How experimental coefficients are computed 42 

Summary of refined averages, their differences and reliabilities, in 

the 60-question tests 43 

Summary of the same in the 40-question tests 44 

Reasons for giving a delayed test 45 

Summary of means, etc., in the delayed tests 46 

Scores by pupils not in the experiment 46 

Summary of probable improvement and Figure 3 to illustrate the 

comparison 47 

Summary of preferences 48 

Conclusions from Experiment A, and discussion 49 

©CI.AH77909 



CONTENTS 3 

Page 
SECTION V. EXPERIMENT B— VALUE OF A SIMPLE DRAWING 

IN CREATING A COMPOSITE VISUAL IMAGE 50 

Introductory 50 

Figure 4, showing composite animal 50 

Description of the animal 51 

How the drawing responses were scored 52 

Figure 5, showing typical response from having seen the illustra- 
tion 51 

Figure 6, showing range of misinterpretations 55 

Summary of refined averages, differences, reliabilities 56 

Figure 7, illustrating varying achievement 57 

Conclusions, and Criticism 57 

SECTION VI. EXPERIMENT C— VALUE OF A DIAGRAM IN DE- 
VELOPING A RELATIVELY ABSTRACT CONCEPT 53 

Introductory 58 

Description of artesian well 58 

Form of matching test 60 

Summary- of refined averages, differences, reliabilities 62 

Summary of probable improvement with each method 63 

Conclusions from Experiment C 63 

Summarj' of preferences 63 

SECTION VII. EXPERIMENT D— COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVE- 
NESS OF FOUR DIFFERENT METHODS OF PRESENTA- 
TION 64 

Introductory 64 

Lesson on the Mountain Glacier 65 

How the first drawing test was scored 68 

Questionnaire on the first lesson 68 

"Working plan for the entire experiment 71 

Lesson on the Earth and Worlds Beyond 72 

Questionnaire on the second lesson 75 

Lesson on the Southern States 78 

Questionnaire on the third lesson 80 

Summary of votes showing various preferences 83 

Lesson on the Growth of Cities and Their Problems 83 

Questionnaire on the fourth lesson 86 

Summary of gross averages and their differences 80 

How the gross averages were combined 90 

Summary of averaged averages 90 

Summary of refined averages, differences, reliabilities 96 

Summary of averaged refined averages and differences 97 

Summary of gross delayed test averages, etc 98 

Summary of refined delayed test averages, etc 100 



4 COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS 

Page 
Summary of probable improvement as measured by the immediate 

completion tests. Fig. 8 to illustrate 101 

Summarj^ of probable improvement as measured by the delayed com- 
pletion tests. Fig. 9 to illustrate 102 

Summary of probable improvement as measured by the abbreviated 

drawing tests. Fig 10 to illustrate 102 

Summary of choices showing varying influences 105 

Conclusions from Experiment D 106 

SECTION VIII. GENERAL CONCLUSIONS, HISTORY AND OUT- 
LOOK 107 

Bibliography 110 

TABLES 

I. Scores by 499 7A-grade pupils in a 60-question test, showing con- 
version of steps into T-Scale units 3G 

II, Scores by 300 selected 7A-grade pupils in the 60-question tests, 

together with means, deviations, reliabilities 41 

III. Scores by 300 selected 7A-grade pupils in the 40-question tests, 

with means, etc 44 

lY. Scores by 300 selected 7A-grade pupils in the delayed 40-question 

tests, with means, etc 45 

Y. Scores by 171 7A-grade pupils who had not been taught 47 

YL Scores by 334 7A-grade pupils in the ''animal" test 53 

YII. Scores by 244 selected 7A-grade pupils in the "animal" test, with 

means, etc 53 

YIII. Scores by 313 7A-grade pupils in the "artesian well" test 61 

IX. Scores by 235 selected 7A-grade pupils in the "artesian well" 

test, with means, etc 62 

X. Scores by 256 selected 7B-grade pupils in the different tests of 

the "Mountain Glacier" questionnaire, means, etc 92 

XI. Scores by 256 selected 7B-grade pupils in the tests of the "Earth 

and \Vorlds Beyond" questionnaire, means, etc 93 

XII. Scores by 256 selected 7B-grade pupils in the tests of the "South- 
ern States" questionnaire, with means, etc ". 94 

XITI. Scores by 256 selected 7B-grade pupils in the tests of the "Growth 

of Cities" questionnaire, with means, etc 95 

XIY. Scores by 196 selected 7B-grade pupils in the delayed completion 

tests, with means, etc 99 

XV. Scores by 247 7B-grade pupils who had not participated 100 

X\''I. Distribution of 6365 choices showing varying influences 104 

Appendix A. Tables 1 to 5, inclusive. (Relevant to Experiment A) . . .111 
Appendix B. Tables 1 to 16, inclusive. (Relevant to Experiment D) . . .116 



WARNING 



WARNING 

In view of the fact that the question of visual aids is arousing consid- 
erable interest among the educators of the world, and the further fact that 
the findings embodied in this treatise are likely to be misconstrued by 
certain commercial interests to their own advantage, the following reserva- 
tions are specifically made : 

1. The conclusions after the various experiments hold only for these 
same experiments as performed under the conditions described. 

2. In venturing to state the general value of visual aids, we can go 
only by inference now. 

3. The results of this stud}'' indicate a distinct value for pictures 
only as aids, not as substitutes. 

4. The problem of economj^ yet remains to be solved, for the cost of 
some visual aids still outweighs their educative value. 

JOSEPH J. WEBER, 
Associate Professor of Education. 
University of Kansas, 
Lawrence, Kansas, 
March 22, 1922. 



COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS 



ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

I acknowledge with gratitude the assistance received in connection 
with this study. Professor Thorndike encouraged and guided me in the 
beginning. Professor McCall advised me in planning experiments, formu- 
lating tests, and working up the statistical results. Professors Hillegas 
and Fret well assisted him in the supervision of my work. Many of my 
fellow students in Teachers College co-operated in the study of Primary 
Sources. Miss Hochheimer, assistant director of visual instruction for 
the public schools of New York City, made arrangements for my experi- 
mental work in P. S. 62, Manhattan, Principal B. S. Brodie granted me 
the freedom of the classrooms. The pupils and teachers co-operated whole- 
heartedly. Miss Myrtle Spaulding, assistant principal and supervisor of 
history and geography, taught the lessons in Experiment A and helped in 
many other ways to make this investigation a success. 

J. J. W. 



COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OP SOME VISUAL AIDS IN 
SEVENTH GRADE INSTRUCTION 

By Joseph J. Weber 



SECTION I. THE TROBLEM STATED 

In recent years the educational world has heard much of visual educa- 
tion, which seems to be a new movement. Visual education, however, is 
not really new. It is as old as education through the eye itself ; and many 
of the so-called visual aids — models, globes, maps, charts, graphs, diagrams 
— are of long standing. AVhat has given visual education the appearance 
of a new movement is no doubt the perfection of photography. Practical 
photography has created various means of probable instructional value. 
They are the photograph, the stereograph, the lantern slide, and the mov- 
ing picture. 

NoAv the big question for the true educator is : Are visual aids merely 
a fad; or have they distinct value? If they are a fad, he wants to guard 
against the costly mistake of trying to incorporate them in his instruc- 
tional technique. Visual aids are expensive, and unless their use decidedly 
increases the effectiveness of instruction, he must know it, so as to be able 
to resist the aggressions of commercial interests. On the other hand, if 
visual aids do increase decidedly the effectiveness of instruction, the sooner 
he gets scientific proof of the fact, the better. For him to ignore persist- 
oitly a valuable aid to instruction is plain professional inefficiency. 

To answer the question in a scientific manner is the aim of the follow- 
ing investigation. The problem may be stated specifically — 

Will the use of pictures along with verbal instruction effect economy 
in the learning process? And, if so, how much? 



8 COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS 

SECTION 11. ANALYSIS OF THE PROBLEM 

Is it safe to assert that we sometimes take ten minutes to describe 
verbally a relationship which could be portrayed more accurately in half 
the time by means of a visual presentation? If this is so, our present 
method of verbal instruction is not really economical. Pupils are forced 
to learn under difficulties. There is too much waste in the apperceptive 
process. 

In the beginning learning grew only out of actual experience. The 
primitive boy learned to hunt and fish under these conditions. Aromatic 
concepts came to him through his nose., so to speak; interest arose largely 
from organic sensations ; concepts of power arose from his muscular efforts ; 
and a large variety of other concepts grew out of auditory and visual 
experiences. 

With the growth of language, however, learning came to be trans- 
ferred increasingly through the medium of a symbol — the word. The 
hunter would kill the beast, then translate his experience into words and 
transfer it in this manner ; while the listener, in his turn, would retranslate 
the words back into the imagery of his OAvn experience — and understand. 

The perfection of the printing press has greatly facilitated verbal 
transfer. The result is that nearly all learning is constantly being recorded 
and preserved in words and utilized in that form. The press has devel- 
oped; libraries have multiplied; the textbook has become a valuable aid 
to the educator. 

Verbal transfer is a marvellous economy, but only when the parties 
to the exchange have a common experience. It would be folly for the 
specialist to communicate with his colleague in terms of original experi- 
ences. Language alone usually suffices. But when he tries to convey his 
ideas to the lay mind, he must illustrate or demonstrate in terms of simple 
experiences. 

In our schools, unfortunately, the use of verbal transfer has been car- 
ried too far. Verbal transfer is at best an indirect method of presentation. 
A great deal of loss is bound to occur on the way. If there is no empirical 
mass in the hearer or reader, he fails to understand; and, as is often the 
case with school children, if some kind of comprehension is insisted upon, 
irrelevant imagery is drafted into service, and the result is not uncommonly 
a deplorable misconception. 

In teaching, the line of least resistance is to lecture and assign lessons 
in a textbook. This means verbal transfer, with its attendant vagueness 
and misconceptions. While words are economical in the exchange of com- 
mon ideas — in discussion and review — they will not always do in present- 
ing new facts or developing new concepts. The most economical method 
of presentation here is to provide sense experiences. These insure direct, 
unentangled, quickly and securely made bonds. 



ANALYSIS OF PROBLEM 9 

For the presentation of a brand new idea, therefore, the actual experi- 
ence is the method par excellence. It conveys clearcut images and rela- 
tionships ; and it does this in a way which is not only quicker but also more 
satisfying to the learner. And in the elementary school especially, where 
new facts and thought relations are constantly being introduced, actual 
experiences should have gone before or should accompany verbal dis- 
cussion. The latter, in a certain sense, should be merely the hum and whirr 
of the brain factory as it transforms the raw materials from the senses into 
the finished product — learning. 

However, it is not to be inferred from the foregoing that the sense 
experience alone effects learning. The primarj^ stimulus must not be con- 
fused with the finished response. The sense experience is but a fraction of 
the educative process. Learning grows out of thinking and achieving. 
These make the man or the woman. 

Nor should the place of verbal discussion be disputed. It plays a big 
part in the life of the learner. It serves to arouse curiosity ; it provokes 
thinking ; and, not infrequently, it engenders the grandest ideals. It is 
absolutely necessary for the growth of verbal concepts. The higher thought 
processes involve almost exclusively verbal imagery. Verbal discussion 
seems to furnish the power for utilizing the natural resources of sense expe- 
rience. Verbal transfer is wasteful only when other methods are demon- 
strably' more economical. 

Quite recently the touch experiences have come again into their own 
in the so-called manual training movement. And with the advent of the 
Dewey "Interest" conception of education, the organic feelings are begin- 
ning to receive their due. But visual experiences are still not utilized to 
the full extent of their potential value, although they provide probably the 
largest fraction of the primary stimuli to learning. One obvious reason 
why this is so is that the actual visual experience is seldom feasible and 
often quite impossible. We can not afford to take the geography class to 
Egypt. 

But the invention of photography has placed in the hands of the 
educator a means of manifestly great possibilities. The photograph is a 
cross-section of a visual experience that can be transported from one part 
of the earth to another, from one linguistic group to another, from one his- 
toric period to another, with very little loss in accuracy and form. The 
sensitive film has made vicarious experience practicable. The American 
school boy can now see the hippopotamus wade in the muddy waters of the 
Nile ; and he acquires thus a fund of realistic imagery, which can be made 
the basis of more effective instruction. 

The foregoing considerations suggest a subdivision of the main prob- 
lem into its various aspects. There is first of all the question of sense expe- 
rience. How big a part does each type of sense experience play in learning? 



10 COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS 

Then there is the question of verbal transfer. Under what conditions must 
verba] transfer be aided by sense experience? Next there is the question of 
method. What kind of visual aid should be used, M^hen and how? Finally 
there is the question of comparative effectiveness. Which of the various 
methods effects the greatest economy in learning? 

The secondary problems definitely selected for investigation are : 
The Distribution of Primary Sense Experiences ; 
The Effectiveness of Informational Moving Pictures in Combi- 
nation with Verbal Instruction ; 

The Value of a Simple Drawing in Creating a Composite Visual 
Image ; 

The Value of a Diagram in Developing a Relatively Abstract 
Concept ; 

The Comparative Effectiveness of Four Different Methods of 
Presentation. 



PRFMARV SENSE EXPERIENCES 11 

SECTION lir. PRIMARY SENSE EXPERIENCES 

Presuming that the senses are the primary stimuli to human learning, 
the question arises : What proportion is provided by each type of sense 
experience? In detail — 

What per cent is provided by visual experiences? 
What per cent by auditory experiences? 
What per cent by touch and muscle feelings? 
What per cent by other organic sensations? 
What per cent by taste and smell? 

For this investigation only one ty])e of learning was selected — knowl- 
edge. A list of fifty words was prepared in the form of a ''judgment" 
study and submitted to nearly a hundred graduate students at Teachers 
College, Columbia University. The judges were all experienced educators. 
Some were registered in educational psj'chology, others in administration, 
and still others in teacher training. The list of words was selected in the 
following manner: The 11th, 31st, 51st, 71st, . . . and 991st words 
were chosen from A^'res's Thousand Commonest Words.* The order of 
difficulty was not disturbed except in a few cases. Transpositions were 
made only when words had more than one meaning. The word ''can," foi 
instance, was placed after the word "belong" so as to suggest the verb 
rather than the noun. In making the random sampling, it was assumed 
that every worth-while idea would at one time or another be clothed in 
language; and thus the thousand commonest words were considered iden- 
tical, in a way, with the thousand commonest ideas. 

Following is the form used in the study : 

PRIMARY SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE 

Purpose of this Study: To determine quantitatively the contributions 
of the various sense experiences to a person's mental content or makeup, 
especially to what he knows. 

Discussion : Each word in the column below has a certain accepted 
meaning. This meaning originated from some primary sense experience, 
such as seeing, hearing, smelling, tasting, feeling, and the like. Moreover, 
this meaning has been modified and augmented by a large number of sub- 
sequent experiences. It is highly probable that more than one sense avenue 
has contributed to the meaning of each \A'ord, 



♦Ayres's Spelling Scale. 



12 



COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS 



Directions: (1) Look at each word and think of the sense or senses 
through which its meaning has come originally. Then (2) distribute 10 
points among these sources, as you judge best. Note how one subject has 
done so with the word "pencil" — 

Pencil: Visual, 4 points; auditory, 1; touch (skin and muscle), 4; 
taste and smell, 1 ,- miscellaneous organic sensations, 0. Total 
number of points, 10. 

Caution: Please guard carefully against any pre-conceived notions 
about what per cent should be visual, what per cent auditory, what per cent 
tactual, miscellaneous, etc. 

Study the following headings thoroughly, then go ahead fearlessly. 
At the end of every five words you might look back at the headings to make 
sure that you have not gone astray. 











Miscellane- 






Visual 




V 


ous 






experience: 


Auditory 


Touch 


organic 






Seeing 


experience: 


experience: 


experiences: 






realities, 


Hearing 


Pressure 


Emotions, 


Taste 




demonstra- 


spoken 


temperature. 


moods, 


and 




tions, pictures. 


words, 


kinesthetic 


illness. 


Smell 




printed 


sounds, 


(muscle) 


hunger, 


experiences 


Word 


words, 
etc. 


noises, 
etc. 


sensations 
(doing) 


thirst, 
sex, 
etc. 




green 
loud 






















work 










sick 










pepper 




i 








, 





Don't fail to review the headings; neither be over-conscientious. 



Word 


Visual 


Auditory 


Tactile 


Misc. Org. 


Taste Smell 


ffold 












place 

spring 

love 












i 








i 









inside 













today 
not 






















live 












belong 
can 






















soon 













dear 


1 








for 


■ • • 









PRIMARY SENSE EXPERIENCES 



13 



glass 
wind 






















try 
Friday 






















these 












began 












enter 












turn 












world 












nothing 












beside 












off 












write 












retire 












offer 












April 












office 












board 












doctor 












personal 












getting 












fortune 












enclose 












desire 












clerk 












crowd 












running 












neighbor 












illustrate 












piece 












effect 












arrive 












concern 












earliest 












material 












session 












preliminary 

























Totals : 



14 COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS 

Objections may be raised agrainst the validity of this study. 

Many of the judges felt that their decisions were far from reliable. 
This is probably true. However, the study, as made, is better than just 
nothing. Let us remember that each judge was forced to render fifty sepa- 
rate specific judgments instead of one general verdict. 

A second objection is: Did the study really measure sensory origins? 
Was it not instead an indirect study of imagery? In answer to that, it may 
be said that even if this was so, it does not make any difference. Imagery 
very likely is a reliable index of sensory origins. No doubt it is logical to 
assume that the nature of images is determined by original sensory expe- 
rience. Blue is a visual image for which visual experiences are primarily 
responsible; loud is an auditory image for which auditory experiences are 
responsible; ill is an organic image for Avhich organic sensations are respon- 
sible; and so on. 

An improvement over the method used in determining origins may be 
to secure judgments on a random sampling of words, pronouncing them pre- 
ponderatingly visual or auditory or otherwise, and then computing the 
relative percoits of each class. 

A third objection is that a knowledge of sensor}' origins has no prac- 
tical value for the educator because experiences — auditory, tactile, or 
organic — are frequently translated into visual imagery by the learner with- 
out any loss whatever. The premise is false. There is loss. Translation is 
probably only a form of compensation to which the organism resorts in a 
desperate attempt to give meaning to the stimulus. So many more visual 
bonds have been acquired in the life of the learner that the conscious re- 
sponse is greath' facilitated via visual neurones; hence the functioning of 
visual imager}^ 

Another objection is this : In the study submitted, the visual column 
has first place, Avhich in itself tends to favor it. Should not the forms have 
been varied so that the visual could have come second in some, third in 
others, fourth and fifth in still others? The criticism is just. No doubt in 
future studies of this character the objection Avill be met. However, it is 
unlikely that the percentage attributed to visual origins will be affected 
to any large extent. 

Other objections may be raised. One of them was anticipated by the 
statement that this study concerns itself with only one type of learning — 
knowledge. It does not attempt to invade the realm of skills, Avhere touch 
and kinesthetic sensations may play the leading role. The problem of sense 
origins can not be solved in a lump. 



PRIMARY SENSE EXPERIENCES 



15 



SUMMARY OF RESULTS 

Summary of results obtained from 4,050 separate judgments by 81 
psychologists and experienced educators in tracing back to their empirical 
origins fifty words selected at random from "The Thousand Commonest 
Words" by Ayres. Results in percents. 





Visual 


Auditory 


Touch 


Miscellaneous 


Taste 




experience 


experience 


and muscle 


organic 


and smell 


Means; 


39.75 


25.39 


16.55 


15.20 


3.13 


S. D.: 


11.14 


10.99 


7.14 


9.41 


2.48 


S.D.M. 


1.238 


1.221 


.792 


1.046 


.276 



SUMMARY OF DIFFERENCES AND THEIR RELIABILITIES 



Visual 


Auditory 


Tactile 


Misc. Org. 


Taste Smell Difference 


S. D. Diff 


39.7 


25.4 


.... 






14.C 


! 


1.739* 


39.7 


.... 


16.5 




.... 


23.2 




1.470 


39.7 






15.2 




24.E 




1.627 


39.7 








3.2 


36.£ 




1.268 




25.4 


16.5 






8.£ 




1.455 




25.4 


.... 


15.2 




10.5 




1.608 




25.4 






3.2 


22.5 




1.250 






16.5 


15.2 




U 




1.312 






16.5 


.... 


3.2 


13.C 




0.839 








15.2 


3.2 


12.( 




1.082 




















T. 




Visual 




Auditory 






Tactile 


Misc. org. 


& 




40% 




25% 






17% 


157o 




S. 
3% 



In the foregoing summary of the differences and their reliabilities, the 
1.739 represents the standard deviation of the difference 14.3 between the 
visual and auditory means. It has been obtained by summing the squares 
of the reliabilities of the two means and extracting the square root, accord- 
ing to the formula : 



S.D. rrr V(S.D.)^+ (S.D.)^ 

Diff M, M, 

Explanation : In the summary of the means, deviations, and reliabil- 
ities, the reliability of the visual mean is 1.238, and that of the auditory 
mean is 1.221. Squaring each one of these two numbers, summing the prod- 
ucts, and extracting the square root, we get 1.739, as shown below : 



S.D. rr V(1.238)2-h (1.221)2 = 1.739 
Diff 



•1.730= V (1.238)'+ (1.221)* 



16 COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS 

It has been statistically determined that if we multiply the reliability 
of the difference by 2.78, we obtain a figure below which the difference will 
not contract. Multiplying 1.739 by this number, we get 4.8. Thus we may 
state with practical certainty that the difference, ]4.3, would never shrink 
to less than 9.5, were the same list of words submitted in the same form to 
many other similarly trained judges.f 

Conclusion : From the Study of Primary Sources we learn that in trac- 
ing back to their perceptual origins the countless elements of each of fifty 
common verbal concepts, two himdred out of the possible five hundred 
credits fall into the visual column. Summarily stated, the results of the 
study attribute forty per cent of our conceptual learning to visual experi- 
ence. The remaining sixty per cent is distributed as follows : auditory 
experience, twenty-five per cent; tactile experience, seventeen; miscel- 
laneous organic, fifteen ; taste and smell, three. This distribution, of course, 
is reliable only in so far as the words judged represent a random sampling 
of conceptual learning. 



tin the fall of 1921 a list, made up by selecting twenty-five out of the fifty words, was 
submitted to various groups of undergraduate students in the School of Education of the 
ITniversity of Kansas. The judges had had little teaching experience and probably no training 
in introspective judgment. The obtained mean for visual origins was nearer 30 than 40, and 
that for the auditory nearer 30 than 25. 



SECTION IV— EXPERIMENT A 17 

SECTION IV. EXPERIMENT A.— MOVING PICTURES IN 
COMBINATION WITH VERBAL INSTRUCTION 

Is the textfilm worth a place in the curriculum? Should part of the 
class period be given over to it? And, if so, when will it be more effective, 
before the lesson or after it? In other words, should the film introduce a 
topic, or should it be used as a summary? These are questions that the 
practical educator will ask, and I have tried to answer them in the first 
experiment. 

The predominant aim in Experiment A has been to measure the effect of 
the film when employed as an aid along with verbal instruction. 

In order to conduct the experiment it was necessary to select first of all 
a film. The one chosen was a travelogue. It dealt with life in India, and 
the exact title was "The Country of the Mahrattas, and Other Scenes." 

From this film a lesson was prepared in the following manner: The 
subtitles were copied on paper. Then the film was put on the re-wind and 
examined frame by frame. Detailed notes were jotted down between the 
subtitles. And from this working outline the lesson was constructed. Thus 
the subject-matter of the lesson was common with that of the film. 

Altogether nearly five hundred 7A-grade pupils participated, six classes 
of boys and six of girls. They were divided into three groups, approxi- 
mately equal in size and ability. 

The first unit of the experiment was planned to be conducted as follows; 

Group A was to be taught the lesson for twenty-five minutes. After 
the lesson would come a 12-minute review-quiz. This would make the total 
duration of the period thirty-seven minutes. 

Group B was to be shown the film for twelve minutes. After the film 
would come the 25-minute lesson, taught by the same teacher in the same 
manner as in the case above — 37 minutes. 

Group C was to be taught the 25-minute lesson, with the film following, 
just the reverse of Group B — 37 minutes. 

The review-quiz Avas a substitute for the film. It was the teacher's 
opportunity to compete with the effectiveness of the pictorial presentation. 

Following is a copy of the lesson: 



18 COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS 

THE COUNTRY OF THE MAHRATTAS AND OTHER SCENES IN INDIA 

The Grain Market. — As one travels through this country one of the 
common sights he meets is the grain market. Here can be seen natives 
walking about and carrying bales (bundles) of grain on their backs. Some 
of the men lead donkeys. 

Arrival of a Caravan. — Another common sight is the arrival of a cara- 
van. A long file of camels can be seen lumbering along the street, each 
camel being led by a man. As you watch the caravan pass by, you can not 
fail to notice the row of cottages across the street. All the cottages have 
thatched straw roofs. (3 minutes up.) 

Cutting the Sugar Cane. — The sugar cane is cut by machinery. A team 
of oxen, or buffaloes, furnish the power. They walk around in a small 
circle and are hitched to the outer end of a long stout pole. The inner end 
is attached to a large gear wheel which turns as the oxen walk around it. 
This wheel drives a small cog wheel which, by means of long steel rods, 
drives the cutting- machine. This stands oi¥ to one side. The cutting ma- 
chine is fed by hand. The space in which this macliine is found is separated 
from the oxen by a high hedge wall and it is covered with a scanty roof 
held up by four strong corner poles. The roof provides shade. (6 minutes up.) 

Oudhipur, the Maharadjah's Summer Palace. — Oudhipur is noted for 
the beauty of its scenery-. The palace is a splendid piece of architecture. It 
looks somewhat like our library buildings in this country. Directly in front 
of the palace is a beautiful garden, and the concrete steps from the palace 
lead directly into a peaceful pond in the center of the garden. The pond 
is square in shape. When you stand so that the pond is between you and 
the palace you can see a remarkably clear reflection of the palace in the 
pond. In the garden you can see many palm trees with thick, straight, high 
trunks, and a wealth of palms waving above. There is some very fine statu- 
ary in the park. Before an elaborate entrance to the palace stand the 
statues of two elephants facing each other. (8 minutes up.) 

Through the Tow^n of Oudhipur. — Here you see many working men, 
wearing striped shirts. You also see many Asiatic buffaloes carrying loads 
and drawing carts. The buffalo is the Mahrattan beast of burden. Some 
of the women j^ou see around Avear shawls. 

A Mahratta Potter. — The Mahratta jiottery maker sits on the ground in 
the shade of his thatched straw roof. Before him rests a heavy stone wheel 
on a pivot. The wheel can be made to spin like a top. On the outer edge of the 
Avheel is a hole just big enough for the potter to insert one end of a stick. 
With this stick he turns the wheel and whirls it faster and faster. After a 
while he takes out the stick and the stone keeps on spinning. On the center 
of the stone lies a batch of soft clay. The potter had put that on before he 
started the wheel. And now he proceeds to make a pot out of the clay. He 



SECTION IV— EXPERIMENT A 19 

pushes one hand down the center of the mass and as the stone spins around 
a hollow is formed. This is to be the inside of the jar. His other hand held 
against the outside of the mass forms the outside of the jar. In the same 
manner with his thumb and forefinger he forms the rim of the vessel. 
Finally he cuts off the newly formed jar with a piece of wire. The man 
wears a turban in spite of the fact that he sits in the shade. 

Wild Boars in the Maharadjah's Hunting Preserves. — The scenery re- 
minds you of a desert. The ground is strewn with rocks. The wild boars 
seem to feed on something in the ground. They have large heads and 
powerful snouts. They can be seen in large droves. (13 minutes up.) 

The Town of Lucknow. — 

The Market. — The market place is the great outdoors. Here you see 
men in turbans carr\-ing about baskets of fruits and vegetables. You see 
also many women sitting about watching their wares. Some of the women 
have children with them. 

Hindu Cafe. — Outside of the cafe, or rather in front of it, stand tables 
and benches. You can see men eating there. On the wall you can see a bill 
of fare, but j'ou probably cannot read it. 

Grinding Corn. — Mostly women seem to do this work. They sit in 
pairs on the ground in front of their huts. Each pair works with two mill 
stones, one on top of the other. The bottom stone is stationary. The top 
one is being turned by means of a wooden handle. The corn is ground in 
between the stones. On the ground lie piles of shredded corn, and off on the 
side stand a few sacks. Away from the huts, where the breeze is stronger, 
a man holds a scoop full of corn, which is mixed with chaff and other im- 
purities, to the height of his shoulders and then lets the corn roll off the edge 
of the scoop in a small stream. The grains fall to the ground, while the 
chaff is blown away to one side. The corn is then ready for grinding. 

Lapidaries at Work. — These are men who cut and grind rough stones 
into precious gems. They sit in front of grindstone wheels. They can be 
seen shoving long poles back and forth through the frames on which the 
grindstones turn. The poles by friction furnish the power which makes the 
wheels spin. 

Chasing on Copper. — Men are at work putting ornaments and cutting 
designs on copper vessels. As they work they sit in front of their huts with 
their vases between their knees. 

Hairdresser. — Outdoors before the hut. One man sits on a high chair. 
The barber cuts his hair with a clipper. The effect is hardly artistic. 

Carding Wool. — Before the man hangs a bow-and-string-like thing. 
The man holds a stick with Avhich he pounds the string seemingl3% The 
string picks and tears the wool. 



20 COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS 

Wool Market. — Here the wool is placed loose on a scale. The scale is 
quite old-fashioned, with two suspended platters. It is held up by hand. 
On one platter is a weight. On the other is a pile of loose wool. (20 
minutes up.) 

Palace and Gardens of Nossinehabad. — The architecture of these gar- 
dens differs greatly from that of the Maharadjah's summer palace. In order 
to enter the gardens you have to pass through a very imposing gateway. 
In the gardens you see many cedar-like trees. The buildings are sur- 
mounted with many spires. These are little turrets or towers set upon 
dome-like roofs which rest upon the building like inverted bowls. One of 
the interesting sights is the statue of a buffalo cow with her calf. 

Watering the Palace Garden. — In the midst of the garden is a shallow 
well lined with a concrete curb. The water is dipped out of the well by 
hand. Many men and women come to the well with jars. When filled, they 
are placed on the head and carried away in that manner. The water is 
used to water the plants in the garden. 

Sacred Boat of the Maharadjah. — On a canal in the garden floats a 
square boat, very ornamental in design, with carved figures of a man and 
a horse. A man with a long pole stands on the broad bow of the boat. He 
moves the boat along by poking the pole down into the water until it touches 
bottom. (25 minutes over.) 

(Instructions to Teacher: Go over this material in discussion fashion 
in 25 minutes. Then review it in twelve minutes with the group which does 
not see the film. The other groups do not get the review; they see the film 
instead. The review might be a rapid-fire quiz.) 



On February 16, 1921, the four classes of the "Lesson-Review" group 
were called into the auditorium. Miss Myrtle Spaulding, supervisor of 
history and geography, was the teacher. She lectured through the outline 
once. But as she happened to finish before the time was up, she repeated 
the lesson from the "ToAvn of LucknoAv." At the end of twenty-five min- 
utes, she gave the group a rapid-fire quiz. 

Later on the same day, the four classes of the "Film-Lesson" group 
came into the auditorium. They were shoAvn the film. Then the four 
classes of the "Lesson-Film" group were brought in. And the 25-minute 
lesson was presented to both groups at once. Care was taken to repeat the 
lesson from the "Town of Lucknow." 

Unfortunately the classes of the last group were at a disadvantage. 
When they came in, the center section was already occupied; hence they 



SECTION IV— EXPERIMENT A 21 

were seated in the back of the room, rather far from the teacher to insure 
the proper amount of attention. After the lesson the "Film-Lesson" group 
was dismissed, and the remaining group saw the film. 

Using the 25-minute lesson as a basis, a 60-question test was prepared 
in the following manner: First, forty specific questions were made up from 
the context. Then twenty inference questions were formulated. The 
former tested facts that had either been seen or heard, or both ; the latter 
tested facts that had to be inferred from having seen the film or heard the 
lesson. 

Twenty-four hours later, the test was given in the various classrooms. 
This time interval Avas not exact, some classes being tested a period or two 
earlier, others later. But in the course of the entire experiment, this irregu- 
larity was taken care of by proper rotation. 

Copy of the Test 

P. S. 62. Date 1921 

Last Name First Grade 

Age years months. 

Instructions. — Look at each question below. If the answer is Yes, draw 
a circle around the word "Yes"; if it is No, draw it around "No." Look 
at these examples before you begin : 

Example : Is the Country of Mahratta in India? ^vej No 



Example : Does Mahratta belong to China? .'. .Yes Qio\ 

At the grain market, do the natives carry bundles of grain on their 

backs? Yes No 

Do they ride on the donkeys ? Yes No 

Are the camels in the caravan trotting thru the streets? Yes No 

Do the cottages of the village have shingle roofs? Yes No 

Is the machiaery for cutting sugar cane driven by man power?. . . .Yes No 

Is the sugar cane fed into the machine by hand? Yes No 

Does the Maharadjah's summer palace at Oudhipur look like our 

capitol building at Washington? Yes No 

Can the reflection of the palace be seen in the pond? Yes No 

Do the trees in the garden have straight trunks? Yes No 

Does one find in the garden the statues of two reindeer facing each 

other? Yes No 

Is the buffalo a useful animal among the natives? Yes No 

Does the potter make his jar by kneading the clay? Yes No 

Does the heav}' stone wheel spin like a top? Yes No 

Does the potter turn the stone with a stick? Yes No 



22 COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS 

Does he lift the new jar off M'ith a broad knife ? Yes No 

Do the wild boars in the Maharadjah's limiting preserves feed on 

field mice ? Yes No 

Do the wild boars have powerful tusks ? Yes No 

In the town of Lueknow, is the market held indoors? Yes No 

Do the native men wear turbans? .Yes No 

Is the garden truck moved about the market on carts ? Yes No 

Are there any children in the market place ? Yes No 

At the Hindu cafe, are the tables outdoors? Yes No 

Is the bill of fare printed in English ? Yes No 

Do the women of Mahratta grind the corn? Yes No 

Is the corn cleaned with a fanning mill ? Yes No 

Is the grindstone which is used for cutting and polishing rough 

stones into precious gems round in shape ? Yes No 

Does the lapidary use the long stick for holdhig the gem? Yes No 

Do any men in Mahratta engrave figures on copper vases ? Yes No 

Does the Mahratta barber cut hair with a clipper? Yes No 

In carding wool, do the children help their elders? Yes No 

Is the wool hauled to market in large cubic bales? Yes No 

Is the wool weighed on a scale held up by the hands? Yes No 

Is the arch of the gateway to the Palace and Gardens of Nossineha- 

bad very ornamental ? Yes No 

Are the trees in the gardens tall? Yes No 

Are the roofs on the buildings straight and pointed? Yes No 

Is there in the garden a statue of a buffalo cow with a calf? Yes No 

For watering the palace garden, is the water taken out of the well 

with a rope ? Yes No 

Do the women carry the water jars on their shoulders ? Yes No 

Is the sacred boat of the Maharadjah in the canal? Yes No 

Is the boat propelled (moved) by two paddles? ; .Yes No 

Are donkeys used to carry bundles of grain to market ? Yes No 

Does the caravan come from a country outside of Mahratta? Yes No 

Do the natives eat all the sugar which they make from the sugar 

cane ? Yes No 

Is the Maharadjah the ruler of Mahratta? Yes No 

Are there Siberian pear trees in the palace garden? Yes No 

In the town of Lueknow, is most of the garden truck brought to 

market with Ford cars ? Yes No 

Could the Mahratta potter work better if he turned the stone 

wheel with a fixed handle set in the outer edge? Yes No 

Do the wild boars lie around all day ? Yes No 

Does the produce in the market place of Lueknow come from the 

surrounding country? Yes No 

Is the Hindu cafe bill of fare written in native dialect ? , .Yes No 



SECTION IV— EXPERIMENT A 23 

Can the corn be cleaned for grinding when the air is still ? Yes No 

Are the precious gems made to be sold? Yes No 

Do designs on vases make the vases cheaper in price ? Yes No 

Can a man's hair be cut quickly with a clipper? Yes No 

Do the natives card wool by machinery ? Yes No 

Is the man who weighs the wool the buyer? Yes No 

Are little towers placed on buildings so as to lend beauty to the 

buildings ? Yes No 

Is the Mahratta buffalo less useful than our cow ? Yes No 

Do the women carrj'- jars on their heads without holding them by 

the hand ? Yes No 

Is the sacred boat ever taken out of the palace gardens? Yes No 



Suppose a rich family offered you an opportunity to travel with 
them to Palestine to see Jerusalem. And suppose that another 
rich family gave you a chance to go with them to India to see 
Mahratta. — 

"Would you choose to go to India? Yes No 

"Would you choose to go to Palestine ? Yes No 



Presenting the lesson, showing the film, and submitting the test on 
India constituted only the first unit in Experiment A, which was conducted 
in accordance with the following outline : 

Experiment A. Measuring- the Value of a Film When Used 
as an Aid in Teaching 

Unit I. Scenes in India. Feb. 16, 1921 

Lesson (lecture) 25 minutes 

Review Quiz 12 minutes Group A 

Film 12 minutes 

Lesson 25 minutes Group B 

Lesson 25 minutes 

Film 12 minutes Group C 

Unit II. Chinese Scenes. Feb. 23, 1921 

Lesson 25 minutes 

Review Quiz 12 minutes Group C 



24 COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS 

Film 12 minutes 

Ll'ssou 25 minutes Group A 

Lesson 25 minutes 

Film 12 minutes Group B 

Unit IJI. Japan, llie Industrious. March 2, 1921 

Lesson (see Note) 22 minutes 

Review Quiz 10 minutes Group B 

Film 10 minutes 

Lesson 22 minutes Group C 

Lesson 22 minutes 

Film 10 minutes Group A 

Note: This wars a short film, heiiee Die time was reduced for 
all groups. 

The order of the three different methods of presentation was rotated 
with every unit. 

Beginning with Unit II, the lesson was not a straight lecture. Enough 
questions were interpolated to keep up maximum attention on the part of 
the pupils. This weakened somewhat the value of the review-quiz and thus 
seemed to favor the film. 

The lesson for the second unit is given herewith. It is entitled "Chinese 
Scenes." 

CHINESE SCENES 

Chinese Eating with Chopsticks. — If you traveled through China, one 
of the commonest sights you would meet would be to see three or four 
Chinese seated around the table. Each person would have a bowl of rice 
before him. But he would not be seen eating with a spoon or fork. Quite 
different from us, he eats with chopsticks. These chopsticks are made of 
ivory, bone, or wood, and they are about fifteen inches long. A pair of them 
is held in the hand, and they are manipulated (handled) with the thumb 
and fingers. The Chinese picks up the food with the chopsticks and carries 
it to his mouth. If meat is eaten, it has to be finely chopped up, so that it 
can be handled. 

The Feet of the Women Are Small. — Another strange custom you will 
notice, as you travel through China, is that of the bandaged foot. The 
Chinese women must have small feet. So, when they are still children, 
their feet are bound, to keep them from growing. If you w^ere in a Chinese 



SECTION IV— EXPERIMENT A 2b 

home, you might possibly see a woman bandaging her foot or taking the 
bandage off. A close-up view would show you that the foot is badly out of 
shape, distorted. To relieve the misery, the feet are commonly placed in a 
basin of water. (3 minutes up.) 

Opium, the Chinese Vice. — Many a Chinese can be seen, lying on his 
couch or bed, with a small table before him, on which he rests the heavy 
end of his opium pipe as he puffs the deadly smoke. A Chinese smoker does 
not sit up or walk about or even work as our tobacco smoker does. He lies 
do-v\ai and takes it easy. The opium which he smokes comes from the poppy 
plant. Opium is a milky sap or secretion. After it has come in contact 
with the air it turns dark in color, and it hardens with age. China grows 
twice as much opium as all the rest of the world. 

Playing Cards. — One of the amusements you will find in China is 
card playing. Usually four men are seated around a table. They hold 
cards in their hands with strange pictures and figures on them. In shape 
the cards look a little like our American cards, but the characters on them 
are real Chinese puzzles to us. (6 minutes up.) 

The Barber — A Massage Afterwards. — If you were to visit a Chinese 
barber shop, this is what you would be likely to see : A high stool, the 
barber, a man to be shaved, and the whole business outdoors. First the 
barber ties up the man's queue in a knot high up on top of the head. The 
man does not lie back in a chair as with us, but sits up straight on a stool. 
Then the barber goes ahead to shave him. His razor looks like a cross 
between a potato parer and a putty knife. The barber shaves the face, 
then the neck, then the scalp nearlj^ as high up as the queue, and finally 
he scoops out the ears. When he is thru, he does something else which 
is hard for us to understand. He gives the man a massage, and this is 
how he does It: He pounds the man's back for quite a while with his fists. 

In Northern China They Still Wear Queues. — The people living in 
Northern China are known as Manchus. They still Avear queues or pigtails. 
This means that the Manchu's hair is long and is made up into a braid which 
hangs down his back. Sometimes a Manchu is captured by soldiers from 
farther south. The first thing these soldiers do to him is to cut off his pig- 
tail. (9 minutes up.) 

The Family Conveyance. — The ordinary Chinese family hasn't an auto- 
mobile or even a wagon drawn by mules. All it has is a cart which is 
reall}^ a large wheelbarrow. The wheelbarrow has one large wooden wheel 
in front, a platform, and two handles behind. The handles run under the 
platform to the front of the wheel. There they come almost together. 
They rest on the axle of the wheel ; and farther back they spread out, so 
that a man can walk between them, hold them up, and thus push the cart. 
The platform lies on these handles, behind the wheel and around the sides 
of it. In the center, and over the wheel, is a housing. This cart will carry 



26 COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS 

bag-gage or people or both. Often 3^011 can see one man pushing the cart, 
another sits on one side of the wheel, and a pig with its feet tied to the hous- 
ing lies on the other side of the wheel. They may be son and father and on 
their way to market with the pig. 

One of the Waterways. — You will enjoy seeing a canal in China. The 
banks of the canal are held up by wooden palisades or walls made by posts 
driven side by side into the ground. Of course, there are boats in the canal 
and men in them. But the men do not row^ the boats. Instead, they 
move them along with poles wliich they either poke into the water or push 
against the timber banks of the waterwaj^ Some of the boats are being 
loaded; others unloaded. (12 minutes up.) 

Irrigation of the Rice Fields. — Irrigation means watering the land 
where there isn't enough rainfall. Rice fields under irrigation present a 
beautiful view\ The landscape is very pleasing. You can see the fields, 
the ditches, and here and there a pumping station. 

Oxen Turning Pumps to Force Water Into Ditches. — As you approach 
a pumping station 3'ou will see first of all a shade roof over the ox-power. 
This roof rests upon a few poles. It is round and tapers to a point in the 
center just as a cone does ; but the slope is not very steep. Under the roof 
can be seen an ox Avalking around in a circle. The ox is hitched to one end 
of a stout pole. The inner end of the pole turns the machinery, which is 
very primitive. Off to one side from the power house 3^ou can see a large 
water chain or elevator, which looks somewhat like the chain wheels on our 
caterpillar tractors. This primitive water chain raises the water at the 
bottom of the bank to the top of the bank and over into a ditch at a much 
higher level. A man drives the ox. (15 minutes up.) 

Carabao Cow and Calf, — The animal is held and led by a halter just 
as our cows are. As you travel through China, be sure not to miss the sight 
of a carabao cow with her calf. The calf is very cunning. (16 minutes.) 

Plowing with Carabao. — The carabao is the Chinese draft animal. Quite 
often you see it hitched to a primitive plow and plodding over a small field 
wnth a coolie tagging along behind. The carabao has long spreading horns. 
It is known also as the water buffalo, and it has to have its daily mud bath 
or it refuses to work. 

Grinding Millet — Donkey Power. — A very interesting industry you 
will learn about in your journey through China is millet-grinding by donkey 
power. The donkey is rather small and is therefore handy in a good many 
kinds of work. And this is the way the donkey grinds the millet : A 
thick heavy millstone lies on its side, with a strong steel bar sticking up 
from its center. The upper millstone is much smaller. But it does not lie 
on its side ; instead, it rolls on its broad edge like a Avide truck Avheel. One 
end of its axis is fastened to the upright bar; the other end extends far 
out, away from the stone, and the donkey is hitched to it. As the donkey 



SECTION IV— EXPERIMENT A 27 

walks around the mill, the upper stone rolls in a much smaller circle over 
the lower stone and thus crushes the millet on it. (19 minutes up.) 

Foochow Road (Street in the City). — As you stand on one corner of 
this street you will see many people walking about. There is much heavy 
traffic on the street. Naturally the pavements have to be repaired once in 
a while; and this is done by dragging a heavy roller by hand over the 
patches. Man}- banners are strung across the street, and some are held in 
the breeze bj^ poles fixed to the buildings. There are many shops on both 
sides of the street; and every one has one, two, or more signs up. You can't 
read them, of course; but you know what they are there for — to get cus- 
tomers. 

Wedding- Procession — The Chinese make a great deal of their weddings. 
The people in a wedding procession wear their best clothes. The men wear 
cone-shaped hats, which look much like small parasols. They beat drums 
as they march along. Behind them come Avagons drawn by single horses 
and then carts which are known as — 

Jinrickshas. — This vehicle is a cart with tAvo wheels, a seat, and some- 
times a top. One or two people can sit on it. The jinricksha is drawn by a 
coolie. It has two shafts, between which the man steps and which he grips 
with his hands. lie trots along with it just as a single horse trots along 
with a larger cart. (22 minutes up.) 

Manchu Women of the Middle Class. — 

Woman's Headdress — Woman and Little Girl. — The headdress is high 
and flaring. It looks almost like a kite on top of the head. It holds its shape 
by means of a board frame. It is pleasing to look upon. In addition to this 
kite-like hat, the woman wears a broad band over her hair; this is really 
the base of the hat. A woman, thus dressed, lives in Northern China and 
belongs neither to the rich nor to the very poor people. 

Funeral Procession. — This is a very somber sight. The casket or coffin 
is elaborately draped in black. In outline it looks like the roof of a Chinese 
temple, but very much smaller, of course. This casket is borne on the shoul- 
ders of several men. These men, just like the drum beaters in the wedding 
procession, wear cone-shaped hats over their heads. Behind the casket 
come the carts, or jinrickshas, and the Avagons following them. (25 min- 
utes up.) 



As already indicated, the lesson on China was presented in a slightly 
different manner. We had learned from the first presentation that it was 
difficult to maintain alertness on the part of all pupils through a 25-minute 
lecture ; hence the teacher resorted to a few marginal questions after each 
paragraph. These served the double purpose of providing pupil participa- 



28 COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS 

tion and maintaining maximum attention, and thus the change gave the 
lesson its full value. However, it seemed that the review-quiz was rendered 
less effective thereby. 

There was no noticeable hitch in this unit. Everything went off with 
satisfactory regularity. It will be seen from the general plan that in rela- 
tion to the three different methods of presentation Group A was now in 
place of Group B, Group B in that of Group C, and Group C in that of 
Group A, Not only that, but the methods themselves came in a different 
order so as to offset the possible effect of improvement in the teaching. 

The next day an appropriate 60-question test was given. 

Copy of the Test 

P. S. 62 Date 

Last Name First Grade 

Age Years months. 

Instructions: Look at each question below. If the answer is Yes, draw 
a circle around the word "Yes"; if it is No, draw the circle around the 
word "No." Answer every question. If you are not sure, guess. Look at 
these examples before you begin. 

Example : Is China in Asia ? (ym) No 



Example : Does China belong to Japan? Yes (noJ 

Does the Chinese inhabitant eat rice with a spoon? Yes No 

Are the chopsticks handled with thumb and fingers? Yes No 

Do the Chinese sit at the table when they eat? Yes No 

Do the Chinese bind the feet of the little boys? Yes No 

To relieve the pain, do Chinese people place their feet on cakes of 

ice ? Yes No 

Does the Chinese opium smoker work while he smokes? Yes No 

Does he smoke a pipe with a long stem ? Yes No 

In playing cards, do the Chinese hold the cards in their hands?, , , ,Yes No 

Are the pictures on their cards different from ours ? Yes No 

Does the Chinese barber's razor look like our razors? Yes No 

Does the man to be shaved lie back in a chair? Yes No 

Does the barber massage the man by pounding his back? Yes No 

Is a man living in Southern China called a Manchu? Yes No 

Does a Manchu wear a pigtail ? Yes No 

Does the Chinese wheelbarrow have a wooden platform? Yes No 

Has it more than one wheel ? Yes No 

Does a Chinese ever wheel his wife to toM'n? Yes No 

Are the canals in China banked up with bricks ? Yes No 



SECTION IV— EXPERIMENT A ^9 

Are the boats in the canal rowed along? Yes No 

Does irrigation in China mean watering the rice fields? Yes No 

Is the water pumped into the ditches by oxen-power? Yes No 

Is the water raised by means of a large round wheel? Yes No 

Es all the machinery used very primitive ? Yes No 

Do the Chinese usually keep the carabao calf from its mother?. , . .Yes No 

Do the Chinese plow with the carabao ? Yes No 

Has the carabao short horns? Yes No 

Do the Chinese turn their millet-grinding millstones by hand?. . . .Yes No 

Are the two millstones alike in size? Yes No 

Does the upper millstone roll on its edge? Yes No 

Do the Chinese pack their street pavements with hand rollers?. . , .Yes No 

Are the signs over the shops printed in Japanese? Yes No 

Have the streets banners strung across them ? Yes No 

Do the men in the Chinese wedding procession wear hats like ours?. Yes No 

Are the wagons drawn by single horses ? Yes No 

Has the jinrikisha two wheels ? Yes No 

Is it pushed along by a man ? Yes No 

Does the Manchu woman's headdress hold its kite-like shape by 

means of a wire frame ? Yes No 

Does the hat fit like a broad band over her hair? Yes No 

In the funeral procession, is the casket draped in black? Yes No 

Is the casket transported on a wagon? Yes No 

Is a chopstick longer than a pencil? Yes No 

Do Chinese women go out for long walks ? Yes No 

Is opium more harmful than tobacco ? . . < Yes No 

Do the Chinese play cards on the floor? Yes No 

Does the Chinese barber give his customer a facial massage? Yes No 

Do the men in Southern China wear pigtails? Yes No 

Has the Chinese wheelbarrow two legs? Yes No 

Is the housing over the wheel there to keep the wheel free? Yes No 

Are the boats on the canals used for pleasure parties? Yes No 

Are the irrigation ditches made by man? Yes No 

Does the rice growing require much rain? Yes No 

Is the carabao a wild animal ? Yes No 

Is a j^oung carabao calf usually fed from a milk pail? Yes No 

Do the Chinese grind grain Avith animal power? Yes No 

Do both millstones lie flat on their sides? Yes No 

Has a Chinese city stores along its streets? Yes No 

Is there much noise at a Chinese wedding procession? Yes No 

Are the jinrikishas like our wagons? Yes No 

Do the middle-class women of Northern China wear beautiful 

hats ? Yes No 

Is the casket in a funeral procession covered with flowers? Yes No 



30 COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS 

Suppose a rich family offered you an opportunity to travel Avitli them 
to Palestine to see the country. And suppose that another rich famil^y gave 
you a chance to go with them to C'liina to see that country — 

Would you choose to go to China ? Yes No 

Or would you choose to go to Palestine? Yes No 

The lesson for the third week foUoAvs: 



JAPAN, THE INDUSTRIOUS 

Japanese at Work. — An American with a camera went to Japan to 
study the Japanese at work. And these are some of the activities which he 
saAv and took pictures of : A basket maker, a rope maker, workers at a saw- 
mill, the manufacture of umbrellas, a moving restaurant, a pipe cleaner, a 
street cobbler, and men at work making Cloisanne Avare. Let us now take 
these industries one at a time and try to see with our imagination just what 
the American visitor saw. The first kind of work we see is that of 

The Basket Maker. — A man, dressed as Jai)anese men are, is sitting on 
the floor. He works on the body of a baby carriage. He has just finished 
the bottom, and now he is weaving or building the sides. The materials he 
uses look like twigs or splints or reeds. You know what our wicker chairs 
are made of? Well, the bodies of these baby carriages, or buggies, are made 
of the same things — twigs, you may call them. The man's little daughter, 
just a child, is near him. She evidently' likes to watch her father work. 
Behind the man and a little to one side Ave see tAvo or three carriages already 
done, wheels on them and all. 

The next kind of Avork Ave see is that of The Rope Maker. The man is 
sitting on a Ioav box. He has a thick heavy rope in his hands. It lies over 
his knee as he Avorks on it. A pile of hemp or fiber can be seen next to his 
feet. Every so often he picks up a handful of this hemp, tAvists it into a 
strand, and works it into the rope. Then he Avorks in another one farther 
on, until the rope is done. One end of a mat covers the box on which the 
man sits, which no doubt makes the hard boards more comfortable. The 
other end of the mat lies on the floor under the man's feet, and the bunches 
of hemp or fiber lie on this. Rope-making, as you see, is not yet done by 
machinery in the typical Japanese communitj^ The village rope maker still 
does the work by hand. 

We next go Avith the visitor to Avatch the Avorkers At the Sawmill. The 
first thing Ave see is a log, about six feet long. It lies on the bank of the 
river. Evidently it has just been hauled out of the stream. Four men are 



SECTION IV— EXPERIMENT A 31 

at work rolling it up the bank. These men use long poles with sharp hooks 
on the ends. They hack them into the log and then pull it over. The log 
seems to be very heavy, and the work is rather slow. When we look around 
now we see many houses along the bank on the other side of the river. 
These buildings may be the dwellings of the workers at the sawmill. 
Farther along the river we see a boat and aiu)ther log on the bank Avith 
three men at work on it. 

At the sawmill we don't see a large building with a still larger roof 
on it, as we do in this countr3^ We don't see a power house driving heavy 
machinery. We don't see the well-known buzz saw, or the circular rip saw. 
Nor do we see the ferocious band saw. All we see is a log, a man, and a 
hand saw. One end of the log lies on the ground. The other rests on a saw 
buck which holds it up. The man stands on the log right over the saw buck. 
He stoops over, and in his hands he holds a queer-looking saAv. The heavy 
blade is very short and wide. The teeth are coarse. The handle is just a 
short straight wooden stick which the man grips with both hands. The man 
begins to rip the log on the end that sticks up into the air. When he has 
sawed down a certain distance, he stops and drives a stick, or peg, into the 
rift above, to give the saw more play. If he doesn't do this, the log will 
pinch the saw. A Japanese sawmill, you see, is very primitive, or old-fash- 
ioned. 

Another industry, but not carried on in quite so primitive a manner, is 
The Manufacture of Umbrellas. This is what we see : A man is sitting on the 
floor, with an unfinished umbrella before him. You notice that the top. 
or canopy part, of the umbrella has what is called a radiating frame. This 
looks somewhat like a bicycle wheel with its many spokes running out from 
the hub to the rim. On this radiating frame, which is made of wood, the 
umbreUa maker pastes strips or sheets of colored paper. What sticks out 
over the edge he trims off with his scissors. Behind him next to the wall 
stand tAvo finished umbrellas, all ready for the market. Japanese umbrellas, 
such as these, do not have wire or metal frames like ours. 

In Japan, as Avell as in America, the men Avho Avork must eat. For 
those in a hurry, or too far from home, there is The Moving Restaurant, 
This consists of a cart on tAvo Avheels and tAvo legs. It is covered like one 
of our peanut Avagons. But the man or chef doesn't stand inside. The thing 
is a kitchen on wheels. And the street is the dining room for the restaurant. 
As Ave look on, Ave do not see the stove, but Ave see steam rising from sunken 
pots. On a side shelf Ave see a fcAV boAvls. and a fcAV spoons and other 
necessary cooking utensils hanging up. The cook stands beside his kitchen. 
He is also cashier and head Avaiter of the place. 



32 COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS 

We see three customers bu3ung food that looks like macaroni, or rice 
noodles. These noodles are served in bowls. The men eat with chopsticks. 
They wear hats which look like inverted wash basins over their heads. 
A close-up view shows us one of the three men very busy with his boMd and 
chopsticks feeding himself as fast as he can. A grin of satisfaction spreads 
over his face as he downs the last mouthful. 

As we move along we see another Japanese industry on cart wheels — 
that of The Pipe Cleaner. The cart is also covered. The pipe cleaner stands 
beside it. On the cart can be seen a small cabinet with several drawers. 
No doubt the man keeps his tools in them, also pipes which he has to clean 
or which haven't j^et been called for. A small upright metal tube is fastened 
to the side of the cart body in such a way that both ends are free. Steam 
is hissing out of each. And this is hoAv the pipe cleaner cleans a pipe: He 
holds the stem of the pipe to the steam tube. The steam then blows through 
the pipe and cleans it out. The man evidently gives satisfaction, for off to 
one side we see a customer .puffing happily away on his newly cleaned 
tobacco stove. 

Later on we see A Street Cobbler. The middle of the street is his shop. 
He has two boj^s with him. Dry goods boxes partly filled with tools and 
materials and rubbish make up part of his workshop. We see the man 
stooping over. His left bare foot rests on an odd-looking wooden shoe. And 
he is evidently whittling awa^^ on the side of the shoe sole. Maybe it isn't 
small enough yet to fit Ihc foot of the customer. This is what the shoe looks 
like: A thin board trimmed down to the size of a man's shoe makes up the 
sole. Underneath this wooden sole are two wooden blocks. You might 
say that each shoe or sandal has two heels to Avalk on but no sole. Such 
a shoe is fastened to the foot with straps. 

Finally we see an industry about which we know very little. This is 
the making of Cloisanne Ware. Here we see a very large vase, five or six 
feet high, lying on its side. Two men are at work putting ornaments on 
it — painting it, as it seems. Actually this is what they are doing: They 
are laying out a ]iatter]i on the body of the vase with strips of flat wire. 
Next they fill in the spaces -with enamel paste. Then they fuse this in place. 
As we come closer, we see a man at work with a stylus, or metal rod, with 
which he transfers the enamel paste from a round wooden container held in 
the hand to the surface of the vase. As was the case in many other scenes, 
here too we see a child watching intently the work of its elders. Off to one 
side are two other men iiolisliing much smaller vases. They sit on the 
ground and hold the vases betAveen their legs. This ware is prepared for the 
market. 



SECTION IV— EXPERIMENT A 33 

As already stated, the lesson on "Japan, the Industrious" was slightly 
shorter than the previous two. The film took only ten minutes and the 
lesson twenty-two. The time was constant for all groups. One irregularity 
occurred. The "Lesson Review" group was kept twenty minutes over the 
noon hour. However, their consent was first solicited and secured; then 
they were promised the privilege of coming twenty minutes late to afternoon 
classes. This irregularity in the third unit probably compensates for the 
one in the first unit to the "Lesson-Film" group, and enhances somewhat 
the constant superiority of the "Film-Lesson" method. 

The next day an appropriate 60-question test was given. 

Copy of the Test 

P. S. 62. Date 1921 

Last name First Grade 

Age years months. 

Instructions: Look at each question below. If the answer is yes, 
draw a circle around the word "Yes"; if the answer is no, draw the circle 
around the word "No." Answer every question. If you are not sure, guess. 
Leave no blanks. Study these examples first : 



Example : Is Japan east of China? QvesJ No 

Example : Has Japan a President ? Yes Qo^ 

Was the visitor, whom we accompanied in our imagination on a trip 

through Japan, an American ? Yes No 

Did he go there to study the Japanese people at play? Yes No 

Did he take a picture of a religious feast ? Yes No 

As you watched the basket maker at his work, did you see him sit- 
ting on a stool ? Yes No 

Was he Aveaving the body of a baby carriage? Yes No 

Were the materials he used twigs? Yes No 

Was the little girl with him crying? Yes No 

Did the rope maker sit on a box ? Yes No 

Did the rope lie over his shoulder? Yes No 

Did the man twist a handful of hemp into a strand or cord before 

he worked it into the rope? Yes No 

Did you see a mat under the rope maker's feet ? Yes No 

At the sawmill, was th« log on the bank sixteen feet long? Yes No 

Did four men roll it up the shore? Yes No 

Was the log rolled along by means of a rope ? .'Yes No 



34 COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS 

Did the Japanese saw look like one of our saws ? Yes No 

Did one man only hold the saw ? Yes No 

Did the log which was being sawed in two lie on the ground? Yes No 

Was the peg driven into the split or rift in order to give the saw 

greater play or freedom ? Yes No 

Was this Japanese sawmill primitive or old-fashioned? Yes No 

Did the Japanese umbrella maker sit on a table? Yes No 

Has the top of a Japanese umbrella a radiating frame, that is, a 

frame with many ribs that spread out from the center like the 

spokes of a wheel ? Yes No 

Was the man at work covering the umbrella with paper? Yes No 

Were there a dozen finished umbrellas near the man? Yes No 

Was the moving restaurant a cart on three wheels? Yes No 

Did the cook stand inside of his kitchen? Yes No 

Did he serve the food in bowls to his customers? Yes No 

Was his wife the cashier of the place? Yes No 

Did the hungry customers eat with chopsticks? Yes No 

Did the pipe cleaner have a small cabinet or drawers on his cart?. .Yes No 

Were there two separate metal tubes out of which steam came?. . . .Yes No 

Did the man clean the pipes with broom straws? Yes No 

Did he give satisfaction, that is, were his customers pleased with 

the work he did? Yes No 

Was the street cobbler's shop in a corridor? Yes No 

Did he have two boys with him ? Yes No 

Did the cobbler wear shoes ? Yes No 

Did the shoe he was making have a wooden sole? Yes No 

Was the large vase more than three feet high? Yes No 

Did the men dip it into a big tank of enamel paste? Yes No 

Did the men who polished the small vases sit on the ground? Yes No 

Did they hold the vases in their arms? Yes No 

Did the American visitor see a Japanese pottery maker? Yes No 

Could most of the industries described be done in a quicker and 

better way ? Yes No 

In weaving a basket, does the man weave the bottom of the basket 

first? Yes No 

Is a Japanese child allowed to watch its father at work? Yes No 

Are ropes in Japan ordinarily made by machinery? .Yes No 

Is a Japanese rope neater-looking than an American-made rope?. .Yes No 

Do the workers who saw up the logs live near by? Yes No 

Have these logs been floated down the river? Yes No 

Is one log ordinarily carried by two men ? Yes No 

Does the. sawyer have to work harder when the log pinches? Yes No 

Does a Japanese umbrella open up like one of our umbrellas?. . , . .Yes No 



SECTION IV— EXPERIMENT A 35 

Are Japanese umbrellas usually black in color? Yes No 

Does the moving restaurant stove cook with electricity? Yes No 

Have the men who eat from a moving restaurant good manners?. . .Yes No 

Has the pipe cleaner a small stove in his cart? Yes No 

Are these opium pipes that he cleans? Yes No 

Does the street cobbler's boy help his father in the work? Yes No 

Does the cobbler mend mostly leather shoes? Yes No 

Are the designs on the Japanese vases put on with brush and 

paint ? Yes No 

Are these vases made to be sold ? Yes No 



Suppose a rich family offered you an opportunity to travel with them 
through Palestine. And suppose that another rich family gave you a chance 
to accompany them on a trip to Japan, (Vote for one only.) 

Would you choose to go to Japan ? Yes 

Or, would you choose to go to Palestine? Yes 



In each of the three weekly questionnaires, there was incorporated a 
concealed test, designed to measure possible influence, if any, upon choice. 
"Would the lesson illustrated by a film influence choice more than the lesson 
supplemented by a review-quiz? It was assumed that a certain number 
would choose to go to the country dealt with by the lesson and the re- 
mainder would choose to go to an}- other place suggested. Palestine was 
chosen as the counter-attraction to India, China, and Japan, respectively, 
because nearly all the pupils in the experiment were of Hebrew descent. 
Following are the results : 



SUMMARY OF CHOICES 

Without Mean 
Film Proportional 

For Lesson Subject 172^ 178.4 

For Counter-Attraction 278 '272.6 

Reduced to simple ratios. ... 9-1 100 

100 Too" 



Seeing the film along with lesson influenced three per cent of about 45Q 
pupils to change their votes for the trip suggested by the lesson. 



AVith 


Gain Effected by 


Film 


Use of the Film 


185 




267 


3% 


106 


Approximately 


100 





36 



COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS 



This effect was considered important enough to be measured again and 
with greater thoroughness. Accordingly, in Experiment D many concealed 
tests were incorporated. Should the above summary not be readily under- 
stood, the reader is referred to a more detailed treatment of choices in Ex- 
periment D. 



The three successive questionnaires contained each sixty questions. The 
correct answer to thirty of them was "Yes" and to the remainder "No," 
The questions Avere scored according to the formula "Rights Minus 
AVrongs." The results of the first questionnaire are embodied in Table I. 



TABLE I 

Distribution of scores made by 499 7A-Grade pupils in a 60-questior. 
test which followed a lesson on India, February 16, 1921. Original steps 
converted into T-Scale units, each of Avhich represents one-tenth of a stand- 
ard deviation from the mean of the group. 













Per cent exceed- 




Group 


A 


B 


C 




ing plus half 




Score 


L-R 


F-L 


L-F 


Total 


those reaching 


T-Score 


- 


2 


2 


1 


5 


99.50 


24 


1- 2 


1 





1 


2 


98.80 


27 


3- 4 


1 


1 


2 


4 


98.20 


29 


6- 6 


1 


4 


1 


6 


97.19 


31 


7- 8 


4 


6 


5 


15 


95.09 


33 


9-10 


3 


5 


4 


12 


92.38 


36 


11-12 


8 


2 


11 


21 


89.08 


38 


13-14 


5 


3 


9 


17 


85.27 


40 


15-16 


7 


9 


10 


26 


80.96 


41 


17-18 


14 


8 


12 


34 


74.95 


43 


19-20 


17 


9 


13 


39 


67.64 


45 


21-22 


5 


11 


14 


30 


60.72 


47 


23-24 


13 


9 


20 


42 


53.51 


49 


25-26 


11 


19 


6 


36 


45.69 


51 


27-28 


17 


13 


13 


43 


37.78 


53 


29-30 


8 


14 


14 


36 


29.86 


55 


31-32 


16 


15 


10 


41 


22.14 


58 


33-34 


12 


8 


7 


27 


15.33 


60 


35-36 


9 


9 


5 


23 


10.32 


63 


37-38 


4 


1 


3 


8 


7.21 


65 


39-40 


2 


8 


2 


12 


5.21 


67 


41-42 


2 


4 


2 


8 


3.21 


69 


43-44 


1 


4 


2 


7 


1.70 


71 


45-46 


, , 


1 


1 


2 


.80 


74 


47-48 


, , 


1 


1 


2 


.40 


77 


49-50 




1 




1 


.10 


81 



163 167 169 499 

The T-Scale units referred to in the heading will be explained later on. 
The column of frequencies under L-K embodies the results of the 60-question 
test following the first method of presentation. "L-R" stands for "Lesson- 
Review." This was the method in which the time that might have been 
taken up by showing the film, was spent in a review-quiz. The column under 



SECTION IV— EXPERIMENT A 



37 



F-L embodies the results following the "Film-Lesson" presentation, and 
the column L-F embodies the results of the "Lesson-Film" presentation. 
The latter varies from the former in that the film followed the lesson instead 
of preceding it. 

The results of the second and third weeks ' questionnaires are embodied 
in Tables 1 and 2, Appendix A. 



In order to make the three tests comparable, the original steps were 
converted into T-scale units, each of which represents one-tenth of a stand- 
ard deviation from the mean of the group. 

The procedure for arriving at the T-scale has been explained very 
briefly in the Teachers College Record, January, 1921, pages 31 to 51, and 
more at length in "How to Measure in Education," by Wm. A, McCall, The 
Macmillan Compan3% New York, 1922. 

The method may be explained in summary fashion here. Look at Table 
T. One pupil in Group B. reached the score of 49-50. Half of this number 
represents one-tenth of one per cent of the entire experimental group. Two 
pupils reached the score of 47-48. One of these two, plus the higher pupil, 
constitute four-tenths of one per cent of the entire group. Two pupils 
reached the score of 45-46. One of these, plus the three higher ones, con- 
stitute eight-tenths of one per cent of the entire group. And so on. 

These per cents were then translated into their S. D. values. Five S. D. 
below the mean was taken as zero for the T-Score, three S. D. below as 20, 
the mean as 50, three S. D. above the mean as 80, etc. Figure 1 will illu- 
minate the translation. 




Converting the original scores into T-Scores made the three successive 
weekly tests comparable. The "Lesson-Review" scores of the first week 
could be added to the "Lesson-Review" scores of the second week, and these 
then to the "Lesson-Review" scores of the third. The same was true of 
the "Film-Lesson" scores for the three weeks, and the "Lesson-Film" 
scores. The average of the three weekly means would be the significant 
mean of each factor. 

The table of S. D. values follows on page 38. 



38 



COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS 



TABLE SHOWING THE S. D. DISTANCE OF A GIVEN PER CENT 

ABOVE ZERO.* 



S.D. 




S.D. 




S.D. 




S.D. 




Value 


Per Cent 


Value 


Per Cent 


Value 


Per Cent 


Value 


Per Cent 





99.999971 


25 


99.38 


50 


50.00 


75 


0.62 


0.5 


99.999963 


25.5 


99.29 


50.5 


48.01 


75.5 


0.54 


1 


99.999952 


26 


99.18 


51 


46.02 


76 


0.47 


1.5 


99.999938 


26.5 


99.06 


51.5 


44.04 


76.5 


0.40 


2 


99.99992 


27 


98.93 


52 


42.07 


77 


0.35 


2.5 


99.99990 


27.5 


98.78 


52.5 


40.13 


77.5 


0.30 


3 


99.99987 


28 


98.61 


53 


38.21 


78 


0.26 


3.5 


99.99983 


28.5 


98.42 


53.5 


36.32 


78.5 


0.22 


4 


99.99979 


29 


98.21 


54 


34.46 


79 


0.19 


4.5 


99.99973 


29.5 


97.98 


54.5 


32.64 


79.5 


0.16 


5 


99.99966 


30 


97.72 


55 


30.85 


80 


0.13 


5.5 


99.99957 


30.5 


97.44 


55.5 


29.12 


80.5 


0.11 


6 


99.99946 


31 


97.13 


56 


27.43 


81 


0.097 


6.5 


99.99932 


31.5 


96.78 


56.5 


25.78 


81.5 


0.082 


7 


99.99915 


32 


96.41 


57 


24.20 


82 


0.069 


7.5 


99,9989 


32.5 


95.99 


57.2 


22.66 


82.55 


0.058 


8 


99.9987 


33 


95.54 


58 


21.19 


83 


0.048 


8.5 


99.9983 


33.5 


95.05 


58.5 


19.77 


83.5 


0.040 


9 


99.9979 


34 


94.52 


69 


18.41 


84 


0.034 


9.5 


99.9974 


34.5 


93.94 


59.5 


17.11 


84.5 


0.028 


10 


99.9968 


35 


93.32 


60 


15.87 


85 


0.023 


10.5 


99.9961 


35.5 


92.65 


60.5 


14.69 


85.5 


0.019 


11 


99.9952 


36 


91.92 


61 


13.57 


86 


0.016 


11.5 


99.9941 


36.5 


91.15 


61.5 


12.51 


86.5 


0.013 


12 


99.9928 


37 


90.32 


62 


11.51 


87 


0.011 


12.5 


99.9912 


37.5 


89.44 


62.5 


10.56 


87.5 


0.009 


13 


99.989 


38 


88.49 


63 


9.68 


88 


0.007 


13.5 


99.987 


38.5 


87.49 


63.5 


8.85 


88.5 


0.0059 


14 


99.984 


39 


86.43 


64 


8.08 


89 


0.0048 


14.5 


99.981 


39.5 


85.31 


64.5 


7.35 


89.5 


0.0039 


15 


99.977 


40 


84.13 


65 


6.68 


90 


0.0032 


15.5 


99.972 


40.5 


82.89 


65.5 


6.06 


96.5 


0.0026 


16 


99.966 


41 


81.59 


66 


5.48 


91 


0.0021 


16.5 


99.960 


41.5 


80.23 


66.5 


4.95 


91.5 


0.0017 


17 


99.952 


42 


78.81 


67 


4.46 


92 


0.0013 


17.5 


99.942 


42.5 


77.34 


67.5 


4.01 


92.5 


0.0011 


18 


99.931 


43 


75.80 


68 


3.59 


93 


0.0009 


18.5 


99.918 


43.5 


74.22 


68.5 


3.22 


93.5 


0.0007 


19 


99.903 


44 


72.57 


69 


2.87 


94 


0.0005 


19.5 


99.886 


44.5 


70.88 


69.5 


2.56 


94.5 


0.00043 


20 


99.865 


45 


69.15 


70 


2.28 


95 


0.00034 


20.5 


99.84 


45.5 


67.36 


70.5 


2.02 


95.5 


0.00027 


21 


99.81 


46 


65.54 


71 


1.79 


96 


0.00021 


21.5 


99.78 


46.5 


63.68 


71.5 


1.58 


96.5 


0.00017 


22 


99.74 


47 


61.79 


72 


1.39 


97 


0.00013 


22.5 


99.70 


47.5 


59.87 


72.5 


1.22 


97.5 


0.00010 


23 


99.65 


48 


57.93 


73 


1.07 


98 


0.00008 


23.5 


99.60 


48.5 


55.96 


73.5 


0.94 


98.5 


0.000062 


24 


99.63 


49 


53.98 


74 


0.82 


99 


0.000048 


24.5 


99.46 


49.5 


51.99 


74.5 


0.71 


99.5 
100 


0.000037 
0.000029 



♦Teachers College Record, January, 1921, Page 34. 



SECTION IV— EXPERIMENT A 39 

Since the original steps have been converted into T-scores, which makes 
the results of the three successive weeks comparable in terms of the ability 
of the entire experimental group, we may sum the "L-R"- results of the 
three weeks; and by doing so, we get an average of 46.93. 

Similarly for the "Film-Lesson" group, we get an average of 52.43, and 
for the "Lesson-Film" group an average of 50.63. The three averages to- 
gether average 50.00, of course. From this standpoint then we see that the 
"Lesson-Review" method falls short in its effectiveness, while the other two 
methods do better than the composite average. The differences are em- 
bodied in the following summary : 



SUMMARY TABLE 



Film-Lesson 


Lesson- Film 


Lesson-Review 


Difference 


52.43 


50.63 




1.80 




50.63 


46.93 


3.70 


52.43 


.... 


46.93 


5.50 



This summary suggests two hypotheses : 

First, combining a film with a lesson seems to be more effective than 
the lesson alone. 

Second, showing the film before the lesson seems to be more effective 
than having it follow . 



In dividing the original five hundred pupils into three groups, an 
attempt was made to make the groups of approximately equal mental ability. 
In one of the groups there were four normal classes, two of boys and two 
of girls. The second group had two normal classes, boys and girls, one 
rapid-advancement class of boys and one prevocational class of girls. The 
last group had two normal classes, one rapid-advancement class of girls 
and one prevocational class of boys. Altogether there were six classes of 
boys and six of girls. 

On March 16 and 17 all twelve classes were given the National Intel- 
ligence Test, Scale A. 

The scores for each group were arranged in the order of rank. It hap- 
pened that the pupils overlapped as follows: Median 105, Lower Quartile 
93, Upper Quartile 117, lower limit 72, and upper limit 130. One hundred 



40 



COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS 



were picked from each group. This gave a total experimental group of 
three hundred selected 7A-grade pupils. 




72 



93 



105 
Figure 2. 



ii; 



130 



Figure 2 will illuminate the selection. The shaded area represents 
intelligence scores that are common to all three groups. This illustration 
is diagrammatic. 



Table II gives a distribution of the scores by these three hundred 
selected pupils in the three 60-question tests, together with the standard 
deviations and the reliabilities of the various means. 



SECTION IV— EXPERIMENT A 41 

TABLE II 

Distribution of scores made by 300 selected 7x\-grade pupils in each of 
the three 60-question tests which followed lessons on India, China, and 
Japan, respectively. Original steps converted into T-Scale units. 



India 


,, February 16 


Score 


L-R 


F-L 


L-F 


24 





2 





29 


1 





2 


31 


1 


3 


1 


33 


4 


1 


3 


36 


3 


3 


3 


38 


7 


1 


6 


40 


4 


1 


7 


41 


5 


3 


7 


43 


10 


5 


6 


45 


10 


3 


8 


47 


4 


8 


9 


49 


7 


6 


17 


51 


8 


13 


1 


53 


11 


10 


10 


55 


5 


11 


6 


58 


6 


7 


6 


60 


6 


6 


2 


63 


4 


6 


2 


65 


3 


1 





67 





4 





69 


1 


2 


1 


71 





3 


2 


77 








1 


81 





1 






China, February 


23 


Score 


L-R 


F-L 


L-F 


19 










25 










28 










30 










32 







1 


34 


3 


1 


1 


36 


6 


4 


4 


38 


9 





5 


40 


1 


2 


4 


41 


6 


4 


7 


43 


9 


6 


5 


45 


10 


5 


5 


47 


5 


11 


6 


49 


6 


10 


8 


51 


11 


14 


7 


53 


4 


7 


6 


55 


4 


6 


11 


57 


6 


8 


6 


59 


4 


6 


3 


61 


3 


2 





63 


2 


8 


7 


65 





4 


4 


68 





2 


6 


71 








2 


74 








1 


79 








1 



Japan, 


March 2, 


1921 


Score ] 


L-R 


F-L 


L-F 


19 


1 








25 


2 








29 


3 








31 


2 


1 





32 


1 


1 


1 


33 


4 








35 


4 





1 


36 


5 


2 


1 


37 


5 





2 


39 


4 


1 


2 


40 


3 


1 


4 


41 


8 


2 


2 


42 


4 


3 


4 


44 


9 


4 


7 


45 


9 


1 


9 


47 


2 


11 


12 


49 


6 


11 


5 


51 


4 


16 


10 


53 


7 


11 


7 


55 


8 


11 


9 


58 


3 


9 


10 


61 


2 


5 


8 


64 





7 


2 


67 


1 


2 





70 


1 


1 


3 


73 


1 





1 


76 


1 









100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 

Means: 48.32 52.10 47.58 45.18 51.59 51.64 44.45 51.82 50.42 

S.D.'s: 8.68 10.29 8.93 9.19 7.80 10.20 10.12 7.43 8.21 

S.Dm'S= .868 1.029 .893 .919 .780 1.020 1.012 .743 .821 



The results of the three hundred selected pupils differ very little from 
the unsolected results. The differences are slightly accentuated, however. A 
possible explanation of this is that the scores of the brightest pupils had 
been eliminated in the selection. Superior pupils seem to be less dependent 
upon concrete or vicarious realities for comprehension. Thej' do excep- 
tionally well even under an inferior method, and their results thus appear to 
give the method a value which it does not really possess. 



42 COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS 

The reliabilities for the averaged means were computed in accordance 
with the formula 



■D._l 1(S.D.)2+(S.D.)2+(S.D.)^ 
M~3\ Ml M2 Ms 



To illustrate : Take the three weekly means under L-R, Table II. 
Averaging them, we get 45.98. This averaged mean has a reliability which 
is equal to 



^J(.868)2+(.919)2+(1.012)2 or .549 



Reliabilities for the various differences were computed in accordance 
with the formula 

S.D. _ /(S.D.)2+(S.D.)2 
Diff~\ Ml M2 

Experimental coefficients were computed in accordance with the 
formula. 

Difference 



S.D. X 2.78 
Diff 



In the summary which follows the "Chances to One" have been com- 
puted from the following table :* 



Exp. Coef. 


Chances to One 


.1 


1.6 


.2 


2.5 


.3 


3.9 


.4 


6.5 


.5 


11.0 


.6 


20 


.7 


38 


.8 


75 


.9 


160 


1.0 


367 


1.1 


890 


1.2 


2300 


1.3 


6500 



♦Wm. A. McCall, How to Measure In Education, The Macmillan Company, New York, 1922. 



SECTION IV— EXPERIMENT A 
SUMMARY TABLE 



43 



Summary of results by 300 selected 7A-grade pupils in the three 60- 
question tests -which followed lessons on India, China, and Japan, respec- 
tively. Averaged means are given. 



Lesson-Review Mean: 45.98; S.D.: 9.50 

Film-Lesson Mean: 51.84; S.D.: 8.60 

Lesson-Film Mean : 49.88 ; S.D. : 9..30 



Film- 
Lesson 
51.84 

51.84 



Lesson- 
Film 
49.88 
49.88 



Lesson- 
Review 

45.98 
45.98 



S.D.M.: .549 
S.D.M.: .497 
S.D.M.: .537 



Difference 
1.96 
3.90 
5.86 



S.D. Dlff. 
.732 
.767 
.739 



Exp. Coef. 
.96 

1.83 

2.78 



Chances 

to One 

250 

Certainty 

Certainty 



The following points may be noted : 

1. The differences among the means from the selected scores vary little 
from those of the original scores. 

2. There is good reason to believe that if the film comes before the 
lesson it is more effective than if it follows the lesson. 

3. We may state with practical certainty that replacing part of the 
geography lesson time in the seventh grade with a closely correlated film 
will result in greater learning. 



As has been explained, each questionnaire contained sixty questions, 
twenty of them general and forty specific. The latter block was more valu- 
able because less influenced by previous training on the part of the pupils. 
This beijig so, the forty questions were scored separately for each week 
and the original steps converted into T-Scale units. 



Table III embodies these results, together with the various means, 
standard deviations, and reliabilities. 



44 



COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS 



TABLE III 

Distribution of scores made bj^ 300 selected 7A-grade pupils in each of 
the three 40-question tests which followed lessons on India, China, and 
Japan, respectively. Original steps converted into T-Scale units. 



India 


I, February 16 


Score 


L-R 


F-L 


L-F 


32 


3 


2 


3 


33 


4 


2 





35 


4 


2 


6 


38 


9 


5 


6 


41 


10 


4 


6 


43 


6 


1 


11 


45 


13 


8 


16 


48 


12 


10 


8 


51 


9 


11 


13 


53 


12 


11 


11 


56 


3 


12 


8 


58 


4 


7 


3 


61 


5 


8 


4 


64 


5 


9 


1 


67 


1 


2 





69 





1 


1 


72 





4 


2 


76 





1 






81 



100 100 100 



Means: 47.26 52.90 48.27 
S. D.'s: 8.61 9.75 8.89 

S.Dm's: .861 .975 .889 



China, February 


23 


Score 


L-R 


F-L 


L-F 


24 


3 








28 





1 





30 


3 


1 


2 


33 


7 


1 


3 


36 


4 


1 


2 


38 


7 


5 


1 


41 


11 


2 


10 


44 


9 


8 


15 


46 


12 


6 


12 


49 


11 


18 


3 


52 


14 


16 


9 


55 


7 


13 


12 


57 


6 


5 


8 


60 


2 


10 


10 


63 


3 


7 


4 


67 


1 


5 


5 


71 





1 


4 



100 100 100 

45.72 51.88 50.93 
9.03 8.37 9.63 
.903 .837 .963 



Japan 


, March 2, 


1921 


Score 


L-R 


F-L 


L-F 


23 


2 








26 


1 


1 





28 


3 








31 


4 








33 


4 


1 


1 


34 


2 





2 


37 - 


9 


1 


2 


39 


- 7 


1 


2 


40 


3 


1 


3 


41 


11 


2 


5 


43 


13 


2 


8 


45 


6 


3 


7 


46 


6 


7 


6 


49 


5 


12 


15 


51 


8 


17 


13 


54 


5 


15 


12 


57 


6 


14 


10 


62 


3 


15 


8 


67 


2 


8 


3 


71 








3 



100 100 100 

43.47 53.29 50.39 
9.04 7.78 8.24 
.904 .778 .824 



SUMMARY TABLE 



Summar}^ of results by 300 selected TA-grade pupils in the three 40- 
question tests which followed lessons on India, China, and Japan, re- 
spectively. Averaged means are given. 



Lesson-Review Mean : 

Film-Lesson Mean : 

Lesson-Film Mean : 



45.48; 
52.69; 
49.86; 



S.D.: 
S.D.: 
S.D.: 



Film- 
Lesson 
52.69 

52.69 



Lesson- 
Film 
49.86 
49.86 



Lesson- 
Review 

45.48 
45.48 



Difference 
2.83 
4.38 
7.21 



S.D. Dif!. 
.726 
.685 
.681 



9.03; S.D.M. 

8.69; S.D.M. 

: 9.01; S.D.M. 

Exp. Co3f. 
1.41 
2.31 
3.84 



.521 
.502 
.520 

Chances 

to One 

Certainty 

Certainty 

Certainty 



1. The differences among the means from the 40-question tests vary 
more than those of the 60-question tests. All are wider, thus raising the 
experimental coefficients. 

2. The other points, previously stated, may be reiterated: (a) the 
film coming before the verbal presentation is more effective; (b) replacing 
a part of the geography lesson time with a correlated film results in in- 
creased learning. 



SECTION IV— EXPERIMENT A 



45 



Approximately fourteen weeks later, the same 40-questiou tests were re- 
submitted at one time to all the left-over pupils who had participated in 
the experiment. See Table IV. 



TABLE IV 



Distribution of scores made by 300 selected 7A-grade pupils in each of 
the three 40-question tests which were re-submitted at one time approxi- 
mately fourteen Aveeks after the lessons on India, China, and Japan. 
T-Scale unit steps. 





India, 


June 7 




Score 


L-R 


F-L 


L-F 


32 


15 


6 


17 


33 


12 


2 


5 


35 


7 


9 


6 


38 


12 


10 


8 


41 


20 


8 


13 


43 


8 


11 


9 


45 


7 


11 


13 


48 


6 


8 


11 


51 


5 


10 


6 


53 


5 


8 


5 


56 


1 


8 


4 


58 


1 


3 


1 


61 


1 


3 


2 


64 





2 





67 





1 






100 100 100 

Means: 40.39 45.67 42.31 
S.D.'s: 6.98 8.49 7.68 
S.Dm'^= -698 .849 .768 





China, 


June 7 




Score 


L-R 


F-L 


L-F 


19 


9 


1 


4 


24 


7 


2 


2 


28 


9 


5 


3 


30 


5 


3 


7 


33 


16 


12 


7 


36 


11 


10 


12 


38 


10 


16 


13 


41 


10 


10 


18 


44 


8 


13' 


6 


46 


7 


13 


10 


49 


2 


2 


10 


52 


2 


7 


3 


55 


3 


3 





57 


1 


1 


2 


60 








2 


63 





1 


1 


71 





1 






100 100 100 

35.53 40.59 39.80 
9.14 8.40 8.73 
.914 .840 .873 



Japan, June 


1 7, 1921 


Score 


L-R 


F-L 


L-F 


23 


5 





1 


26 


6 





4 


28 


2 


4 


7 


31 


11 


1 


2 


33 


8 


6 


7 


34 


15 


4 


13 


37 


14 


8 


8 


39 


13 


11 


9 


40 


5 


9 


12 


41 


8 


14 


12 


43 


1 


14 


6 


45 


4 


11 


6 


46 


3 


6 


6 


49 


2 


7 





51 


2 


1 


1 


54 





2 


5 


57 


1 


1 





62 








1 


67 





1 






100 100 100 

36.13 41.35 38.64 
6.55 6.03 7.05 
.655 .603 .705 



The purpose in giving a delayed test Avas twofold: 

1. To discover how many of the specific facts learned had been re- 
tained over three months. 

2. To see whether the results from the various methods still main- 
tained the same relations to one another with respect to inferiority or 
superiority. 

The delaj'ed test results, together with the immediate results, are 
embodied in Tables 3, 4, and 5, Appendix A. 



46 COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS 

SUiMMARY TABLE 

Summary of results by 300 selected 7A-grade pupils iu the three 40- 
question tests re-submitted approximately 14 Aveeks later. Averaged means 
are given. 

Lesson-Review Mean: 37.35; S.D.: 7.94; S.D.M.: .459 

Film-Lesson Mean: 42.54; S.D.: 8.04; S.D.M.: .464 

Lesson-Film Mean: 40.25; S.D.: 7.99; S.D.M.: .462 



Film- 


Lesson- 


Lesson- 








Chances 


Losson 


P'ilm 


Review 


Difference 


S.D. Diff. 


Exp. Coef. 


to One 


42.54 


40.25 




2.29 


.636 


1.29 


6000 




40.25 


37.35 


2.90 


.632 


1.65 


Certainty 


42.54 




37.35 


5.19 


.627 


3.00 


Certainty 



1. The results from the "Film-Le.sson" method have fallen 10.15 
T-Scale units; those from the "Lesson-Film" method, 9.61 units; and those 
from the "Lesson-Review" method, 8.13. 

2. The results from the various methods still show the same relations 
to one another with respect to inferiority or superiority. 

3. All three differences are still above practical certainty as in the 
case of the immediate results. 



During the experiment the questionnaire on China was submitted to 
a normal 7A-grade class of boys which had been left out of the experiment 
because it could not be matched with a normal class of girls ; and in giving 
the delayed tests, those pupils who by absence had missed one experimental 
unit or the other and all newcomers in the classes involved were required 
to take the tests along with the original participants. 

The purpose of submitting the tests to children not in the experiment 
was to gain an idea of how much significant knowledge the 7A-grade pupils 
of P. S. 62 probably had at the time of the testing. 

Altogether there were 171 scores by pupils Avho had not learned the 
specific lessons nor seen tlie films. These uesults in terms of T-Scale units 
gave a mean of 31.75 with an S. D. of 13.65 and an S. D. M. of 1.044. See 
Table V. 



SECTION IV— EXPERIMENT A 



47 



TABLE V 

Distribution of scores made by 171 7A-grade pupils Avho were not in 
the experiment but Avho were given the 40-question tests. Original steps 
converted into T-Scale units each of which represents one-tenth of a 
standard deviation from the mean of the experimental group. 



T-Score 


India 


China 


Japan 


Total 


19 





19 





19 


23 








14 


14 


24 





8 





8 


26 








6 


6 


28 





10 


3 


13 


30 





9 





9 


31 








3 


3 


32 


15 








15 


33 


3 


7 


4 


14 


34 








3 


3 


35 


6 








6 


36 





16 





16 


37 








6 


6 


38 


6 


5 





11 


39 








3 


3 


40 








1 


1 


41 


4 


2 


2 


8 


43 


3 





1 


4 


44 





5 





6 


46 





1 





1 


48 


2 








2 


49 





1 





1 


53 


2 








2 


54 








1 


1 




41 


83 


47 


171 


Mean: 31.75 




S.D.: 13.65 


s 


.Dm.: 1.044 



The following summary involves the arbitrary assumption that 31.75 
represents the average knowledge which all our 7A-grade pupils possessed 
at the time of the experiment. 

SUMMARY TABLE 

Summary of the probable improvement from the assumed initial knowl- 
edge of the experimental group under each of the three different methods 
of presentation. 

Lesson-Film Lesson-Review 

Achievement Achievement 



Film-Lesson 

Achievement 

52.69 



49.86 



45.48 



Initial 


Probable 


Knowledge 


Improvement 


31.75 


20.94 units 


31.75 


18.11 units 


31.75 


13.73 units 



48 



COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF \1SI'AL AIDS 



In the aluno suiniuary of tho ]n-obal)lo iniprovomont from the estimated 
initial knoAvlodii-o of the oxporimental liTonp. \vo ii'et an improviMUont of 
20.94 nnits from tho "Film-Lesson" method, of 18.11 units from the 
"Lesson-Film" method, and lo.To luiits from the "Lesson-Keview" method. 

Figrure o illustrates this irraphieally. 




Figure 3. Showing Probable Improvement in T-Scale units with each method of pre- 
sentation. Zero on the scale does not necessarily represent the zero of knowledge, which 
is not known. 

After the exi)eriment each class Avas asked to vote on t^vo pairs of 
preferences. The first pair was (1) learning a lesson without the help of 
the film, and (2) learning: the lesson with the help of the film. 

When tliis preference Avas decided, the })upils were asked to vote for 
either (1) the lesson Avith the film preceding- it, or (2) the lesson Avith the 
film folloAvinsr. 



In the folloAvinp: summary the choice hetAveen film first and film last is 
unreliable; but betAveen the lesson Avith the film and the lesson Avithout the 
film, the vote is hiji-hly significant. 

Summary of votes of 476 7A-grade pupils. 

Boys 

Prefer Lesson without Film 22 

Prefer Lesson with Film 196 

Prefer Lesson with Film first 107 

Prefer Lesson with Fihn last Ill 

218 258 476 



Girls 


Total 


Per cent 


11 


33 


7 


247 


443 


93 


110 


217 


46 


148 


259 


54 



SECTION IV— EXPERIMENT A 49 

The results of Experiment A may bo siimmod up briefly: 

1. When a correlated film is used as an aid in a seventh-grade 
geography class, it will increase the effectiveness of the lesson, 

2. This increase in effectiveness is the result of (a) greater ease of 
comprehension and (]>) a higher degree of satisfyingness as a consequence. 

3. Since pictures provide vicarious experience, they should precede 
the lesson when the subject-matter is relatively foreign to the learners. 

4. The preference for moving pictures as a visual aid stands about 15 
to 1 among the pupils in the experimental group. 

Discussion : The differences in favor of the film as a visual aid, as 
shown by this experiment, are probably too high for generalization. The 
subject-matter of the lessons was essentially' foreign, far removed from the 
experiences of the pupils, and thus hard to understand and still harder to 
follow. Had the film been used to aid in the presentation of subject-matter 
more familiar to the pupils, the effectiveness would very likely have been 
much less. Then the lessons were long and tiresome and poorly organized, 
which made them proportionately less attractive than the film. Finally, 
the teacher was handicapped with many experimental restrictions which 
prevented her from being normally effective. Under normal classroom 
conditions the effectiveness of a correlated film would probablj^ be closer 
to half of what the foregoing results indicate. Subsequent experimtnts by 
the author seem to substantiate this assertion. 



50 



COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS 



SECTION V. EXPERIMENT B— VALUE OP A SIMPLE DRAWING 
IN CREATING A COMPOSITE VISUAL IMAGE 

The results of Experiment A suggest certain questions. 

How much learning does a picture alone effect in presenting a certain 
new idea or complex of ideas? 

How much learning does a verbal presentation alone effect? 

To what extent does a picture help a verbal presentation? 

If so, at what place should the picture be shown? 

How does this effect varj^ with the type of idea presented? 

In order to throw some light upon these questions, two experiments 
were devised. Experiment B, very concrete in nature, and Experiment C, 
quite abstract. (See Section VI.) 

Experiment B involved a strange composite animal. This consisted of 
fifteen familiar parts which were put together in an entirely novel manner. 

A two-minute description was prepared, and from this an animal was 
drawn on large cardboard, 24 by 36 inches. Figure 1 is a miniature copy 
of the animal. 




Figure 4. 



The experiment was administered as follows : 
First these introductory remarks were made : 

"We'll play a game of make-believe. Let us suppose that a new island 
has just been discovered among the South Sea Islands, and that the men 



SECTION V— EXPERIMENT B 51 

who discovered the island found on it a strange animal, one that has never 
before been seen. 

"Now I'm going to describe this animal to you carefully and in great 
detail. You are to listen as attentively as you possibly know how. You 
are to use no pencils to keep track of what I am saying. Just keep it in your 
heads as well as you can." (In the "exposure alone," "exposure with 
description," and "exposure with tracing," presentations, the wording of 
these remarks was changed to suit the variations.) 

"When I'm through, I'm going to ask you to draw this animal. Do 
you think you can draw it? Well, you'll try, won't you? Now place your 
hands on your desks and watch me closely. Don't let a word escape you. 
Ready?" 

Here is the description proper : 

"The animal I am thinking of is six feet long and about half as high. 
. . . Its body is covered with long shaggy black hair, somewhat like the 
body of an ape. . . . There is a large hump on the animal's back and 
it resembles that of a camel. . . . The tail is bushy, somewhat like the 
tail of a fox but not so long. . . . The animal has four legs. . . . 
Each of the four paws has strong, sharp claws which enable the animal to 
climb trees. . . . The rear legs are short, heavy-set, and powerful. 
. . . The front legs are slender and somewhat longer. . . . The neck 
of the animal is heavy, like that of a tiger. . . . The head is rather 
large. The ears are set high on the head and resemble the ears of a giant 
mouse. . . . The eyes are large and round and staring. . . . They 
stick out of the head and are surrounded by bristling ej^elashes. . . . The 
animal has a short broad snout, like the snout of the pig. ... It has 
large nostrils and whiskers above them on the ridge of the snout. . . ," 

On Feb. 9, 1921, two classes, first a class of boys, then a class of girls, 
were taught in the following manner : The introductory remarks were 
made. Then the foregoing description was spoken from memory as ex- 
pressively as could be done by the experimenter. The time required was 
125 seconds. 

After the presentation, blanks were distributed among the pupils and 
they Avere asked to write thereon their name and age. Then they were 
asked to draAV the animal. They were encouraged to speed up and hand in 
their papers as soon as they were satisfied with their creations. This was 
done to minimize copying. The time required ranged from 5 to 10 minutes, 
8 being about the average. 

Another two classes were shown the picture alone, following the intro- 
ductory remarks. Time 125 seconds. 

A third pair of classes got a combination of the previous two methods. 
They saw the pictures while they heard the description. Time 125 seconds. 



52 COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS 

About a month later another two classes were shown the picture, with 
this feature added : The experimenter pointed to each of the parts and 
traced its outline during- the exposure, thus calling attention to the 
length-height relation, the shaggy hair, the hump, the bushy tail, and so 
forth. The aim was to introduce a factor of movement. 

The test papers were scored at one sitting. At first fifteen points were 
decided upon a.s the key. They were: 

Length-height ratio 1 point 

Body covered with hair 1 

A hump on the back (one) 1 

A bushy tail (not too long or thin ) 1 

Quadruped — four legs 1 

Claws on each foot 1 

Eear legs short and heavy 1 

Front legs slender 1 

Short ears 1 

Round eyes 1 

Bristling eye-lashes 1 

Broad snout 1 

Prominent nostrils 1 

Whiskers 1 

Large neck and head 1 

Total 15 points 



The papers were scored in rotation, five from each group at a time. 
Part of the original scoring was repeated in scoring the last set. The re- 
sults are embodied in Table YI, in which D-P stands for "Description 
Presentation," E-P for "Exposure Presentation," ED-P for "Exposure with 
Description Presentation," and ET-P "Exposure with Tracing Presenta- 
tion." 



SECTION V— EXPERIMENT B 



53 



TABLE VI 

Distribution of scores made by 334 7A-grade pupils in a free-recall 
drawing test which followed different methods of presenting a "Composite 



iimai. 












Per cent exceed- 
















ing plus half 




Score 


D-P 


E-P 


ED-P 


ET-P 


Total 


those reaching: 


T-Score 





4 











4 


99.6 


23 


1 

















99.0 


26 


2 


4 





2 





6 


98.1 


29 


3 


9 











9 


95.85 


33 


4 


3 








1 


4 


93.9 


35 


5 


12 


2 


1 


1 


16 


90.9 


37 


6 


15 


1 


1 


2 


19 


85.65 


39 


7 


15 


2 


1 


3 


21 


79.65 


4& 


8 


7 


9 


5 


8 


29 


72.15 


44 


9 


7 


7 


8 


18 


40 


61.8 


47 


10 


3 


17 


13 


13 


46 


48.9 


50 


11 


5 


18 


14 


13 


50 


34.5 


54 


12 





14 


11 


7 


32 


22.2 


58 


13 


1 


9 


19 


5 


34 


12.3 


62 


14 


1 


3 


10 


2 


16 


4.8 


67 


15 





2 


4 


2 


8 


1.2 


73 



86 



84 



89 



75 



334 



Table VII embodies the results by 244 selected pupils whose intelligence 
scores ranged in each group from 72 to 130 with the median at 105. It 
also shows the means and standard deviations and reliabilities for each of 
the varied presentations. 

TABLE VII 

Distribution of 7A-grade pupils in a free-recall drawing test which 
followed each of four varied presentations of a "Composite Animal." Re- 
sults by 244 selected pupils whose intelligence scores ranged in each group 
from 72 to 130, with the median at 105. 



Description 


Exposure 


Exposure-Description 


Exposure- 


■Traced 


Score 


Pupils 


T-Score 


Pupils 


T- 


-Score 


Pupils 


T-Score 


Pupils 


23 


2 


37 


2 




29 


1 


35 


1 


29 


4 


39 


1 




37 


1 


37 


1 


33 


8 


42 


2 




39 


1 


39 


2 


35 


2 


44 


6 




42 


1 


42 


3 


37 


7 


47 


7 




44 


4 


44 


6 


39 


12 


50 


9 




47 


5 


47 


11 


42 


11 


54 


13 




50 


8 


50 


13 


44 


5 


58 


10 




54 


11 


54 


10 


47 


6 


62 


6 




58 


8 


58 


5 


60 


3 


67 


3 




62 


11 


62 


4 


54 


4 


73 


2 




67 


5 


67 


1 


62 


1 








73 


3 


73 


2 



65 



Means: 40.11 
S. D.: 7.53 

S. D]vi: .934 



61 

53.13 
8.01 
1.025 



59 

55.12 
8.97 
1.167 



69 

50.81 
7.71 
1.004 



64 



COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS 



Not only did the pupils who saw the picture along with the description 
(1) remember more parts, (2) show better organization in their response, 
but (3) their degree of misunderstanding had a much smaller range. A 
typical response is reproduced in Figure 5. It scored 11. 




Figure 5. 

Those pupils, however, who just heard the description alone, drew an 
array of animals ranging from a duck to an elephant. After the scoring, 
an attempt was made to identify the drawings. Here are some of the 
perceptions : 



Nondescript, 38 figures 

Donkey or horse, 6 

Llama, alpaca, 3 

Camel, 3 

Dog, 3 

Cat, 3 

Mouse, mole, gopher, rat 

Bird, owl, hawk, duck 

Animals with scales 

Porcupine 



Dragon 

Pig 

Hare 

Dinosaur 

Elephant 

Rhinoesros 

Lizard 

Turtle 

Giraffe 

Gerrymander 



Figure 6 gives some idea of the range of misconceptions from the verbal 
description. 



SECTION V— EXPERIMENT B 



55 





Score 7. 



Score 0. 





Score 0. 



Score 5. 




Score 8. 



Score 8. 



Figure 6. Showing range of perceptions effected by a verbal description. 



56 



COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS 



lu the summary that follows, all the experimental coefficients but 
two are of more than practical certainty. "Exposure with Tracing," how- 
ever, should be looked upon with suspicion, for it was given approximately 
a month later, Avlien the animal had already become somewhat famous 
among the pupils. Why it came out lower than "Exposure Alone" is 
puzzling, unless the draAving ability of the pupils in this group varied widely 
from that of the other three groups. This is not unlikely since in equating 
the groups drawing ability was not a consideration. Possibly the tracing 
acted as a distraction ; or the difference may be entirely the effect of 
chance. 

In Experiment B the initial knowledge of the ''animal" as put together 
can be assumed zero. No pupil could have reproduced it without either 
having seen the picture or heard the description. But this was not true of 
the component parts. Nearly all these were well known, except the snout. 
So we can not estimate the amount of improvement. The shading in Fig. 7, 
therefore, is only suggestive. 

The results of Experiment B throw light upon the development of 
what may be called a "substantive" concept. They give us an idea of not 
only how much better a visual percept is formed from a pictorial presenta- 
tion, but they also indicate the range of misconceptions and fantastic 
creations that are avoided. This knowledge is not new, of course, but the 
derived mathematical ratios are probably new. No doubt a careful study 
of the figures will have much more weight with the progressive educator 
than a statement of mere opinion. 

Following is a summary of the results : 



SUMMARY TABLE 

Summary of results by 244 selected 7A-grade pupils in a free-recall 
drawing test which followed immediately each of the four varied presenta- 
tions of a "Composite Animal." (Table VII.) 



Exposure 
















with 




Exposure- 




Differ- 






Chances 


Description 


Exposure 


Traced 


Description 


ence 


S. D. DiS. 


Exp. Coef. 


to one 


55.12 


53.13 






1.99 


1.553 


.46 


9 


55.12 




50.81 




4.31 


1.539 


1.01 


375 


55.12 






40.11 


15.01 


1.495 


3.63 


Infinity 




53.13 


50.81 




2.32 


1.435 


.60 


20 




53.13 




40.11 


13.02 


1.387 


3.39 


Infinity 






50.81 


40.11 


10.70 


1.371 


2.91 


Infinity 



SECTION V— EXPERIMENT B 



57 




Figure 7. Showing Probable Improvement in T-Scale units witli each method of pre- 
sentation. Zero on the scale is not necessarily the zero of knowledge, which is not known. 

The results of Experiment B may be summed up briefly : 

1. In developing a composite visual image pictorial presentation is 
more effective than verbal presentation. 

2. This increase in learning is characterized by 

a. More memories. 

b. Clearer ideas. 

c. Better organization. 

d. Less misinterpretation. 

3. Verbal description, when aided by pictorial presentation, is the 
most effective method of the three. 



Criticism : In conducting Experiment B, an opportunity was over- 
looked. The experiment could have been made more fruitful if along with 
the drawing response a free-recall written description had been called for. 
This could have been scored in a manner similar to that of the drawing 
response. The two scores, combined in some way, would have given a much 
better measure of the effectiveness of the different methods of presentation. 



58 COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS 

SECTION VI. EXPERIMENT C— VALUE OF A DIAGRAM IN 
DEVELOPING A RELATIVELY ABSTRACT CONCEPT 

Experiment C involved the presentation of a relatively complex idea. 
It was conducted with a lantern slide. The aim was to develop the con- 
cept — artesian well. 

Five variations were made in the presentation. 

Variation I. Description Alone. — "I'm going to tell you what an 
artesian well is, how it works, and why. 

"The so-called artesian well is a very deep well with water flowing 
out of the top. The depth ranges from a few hundred feet to several thou- 
sand. How it happens that the water spurts out of the well may be ex- 
plained as follows: 

"The surface of the land where the artesian well is commonly drilled 
has the shape of a basin, low at the center and high all around. Far under- 
neath the surface there are three layers of rock, two hard ones and a soft 
one in between. This middle layer consists of porous earth or sand- 
stone, through which water oozes and trickles and cuts channels. The other 
two layers are so hard, however, that water can not pass through them. 
The lower or bottom layer therefore keeps water from escaping downward, 
while the upper one prevents it from rising through the soft ground above. 

"But how does the Avater get into the middle layer in the first place? 
The answer is simply that somewhere at the edge of the basin the sandstone 
layer crops out at the surface, where it collects water from rains and melt- 
ing snows. The level of this collecting area is necessarily much higher 
than that of the top of the well. Now as soon as a hole is drilled through 
the upper rock layer, the enormous weight of the earth* above the sand- 
stone forces the water below up the bore of the well and out of the top as 
out of a fountain." (Two minutes up.) 

"Summary: An artesian well has great depth, and water flows out 
of the top. The surface from which it is drilled has the shape of a basin. 
There are three layers of rock, top and bottom ones hard and the middle 
one soft. This one consists of sandstone and contains water. The other 
two are hard and keep the water from escaping. 

"Somewhere this porous sandstone layer crops out upon the surface, 
where it collects water from rains and snows. This collecting area is much 



♦Column of water. 



SECTION VI— EXPERIMENT C 



69 



higher than the level of the top of the well. Therefore when the well is 
drilled through the upper laj^er the weight of the earthf above the under- 
ground water forces it up the well and out of the top." (Three minutes up.) 

Variation II. Exposure Alone. — "I'm going to show you a slide from 
which you are to figure out what an artesian well is, how it works, and 
why." (Three minutes.) 

Variation III, Exposure, then Description. — "I'm going to explain an 
artesian well. First I'll show you a slide. Then I'll tell you in words 
what an artesian Avell is, how it works, and why." (One minute, then two 
minutes.) 

Variation IV, Description, then Exposure. — "I'm going to explain an 
artesian well. First I'll tell you what it is, how it works, and why. Then 
I'll show you a slide." (Two minutes, then one.) 

Variation V. Exposure with Description. — "I'm going to tell you 
what an artesian well is, how it works, and why." (Description tAvo min- 
utes, summary one minute; slide three minutes.) 



After each presentation, test blanks were distributed. Because the test 
form was ncAv to the pupils, a little training was given, A mannikin was 
drawn upon the blackboard and lettered as follows : 



Match each part in the picture with its 
name, B goes on the blank line before the 
word "trunk," A goes on the next, D on 
the next, and C on the lowest. 



Instructions for Test: "There are ten different letters on the diagram. 
Below it are ten spaces. Use each letter only once, and be sure to use up 
every letter." 




Care was taken that each pupil understood. 



["Column. 



60 COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS 

Copy of the Test 



Last Name First 



Grade , 



Born When? 19. . . . Age years months, 

(month) (day) 



Date 



1921 



Match each detail in tliis diasfram with its correct name below 




Instructions: Look at each phrase below. If you think it describes 
a certain thing- in the diagram above, place the correct capital letter on the 
blank line before it. Use up all the letters in this manner. 



.Weight of earth* causing Geologically formed bashi. 

pressure. Outcropping porous layer. 

.Hard bottom layer. Flowing artesian well. 

.Level of wall below water Hard upper layer. 

collecting area. D^^^p well bore. 

.Underground flow of Avater. Sandstone laver. 



Question 1. 

Do you like slides better than moving pictures? Yes 

Or — do you like moving pictures better than slides? Yes 

Question 2. 

Can you learn better when you see a thing shown by a slide? Yes 

Or — can you learn better when you see a thing shown by a film? Yes 



♦Column of water. 



SECTION VI— EXPERIMENT C 61 

The foregoing matching test was somewhat of a failure. In one sense 
it was too difficult, and in another sense it was too easy. The mean score, 
which should have been somcAvhere near 5, was only about 2.5. On the other 
hand, the diagram was almost self-explanatory independent of any presenta- 
tion, thus obscuring the effectiveness of the various methods. For example, 
the test Avas given to two classes which had not participated in the experi- 
ment, and the obtained mean was 48.25. This was almost as high as the 
average of the entire experimental group. ITov/ever, one of these outside 
classes was a rapid-advancement class Avhose members had keen powers of 
interpretation. 

A regrettable error in physical law, as indicated by foot-notes, be- 
came embodied in both the presentation and the test diagram. In place of 
the "earth" there should have been a "column of water"; and the arrows 
indicating the fact should have appeared in different positions, so as to 
make the weight relationship easier to comprehend. 

The results of Experiment C are embodied in Table VIII, in which D-P 
stands for "Description Alone" presentation; p]-D-P for "Exposure, Then 
Description" presentation; D-E-P for "Description, Then Exposure" 
presentation; and ED-P for "Exposure with Description" presentation. 

TABLE VIII 

Distribution of scores made by 313 7A-grade pupils in a matching test 
which followed different methods of presenting an "Artesian Well." 















Per cent exceed- 
















ing plus half 




Score 


D-P 


E-D-P 


D-E-P 


ED-P 


Total 


those reaching : 


T-Sc( 





6 


11 


2 


7 


26 


95.85 


33 


1 


16 


11 


15 


10 


52 


83.39 


40 


2 


22 


17 


23 


12 


74 


63.26 


47 


3 


18 


15 


23 


16 


72 


39.94 


53 


4 


10 


20 


11 


17 


58 


19.17 


59 


5 


1 


3 


4 


8 


16 


7.35 


64 


6 


1 


3 


1 


4 


9 


2.88 


69 


7 


1 





2 





3 


1.44 


72 


8 





1 


1 





2 


.64 


75 


9 

















.32 


77 


10 














1 


.16 


80 



75 81 82 75 313 



Table IX embodies the results by 235 selected pupils whose intelli- 
gence scores ranged in each group from 72 to 130, with the median at 105. 
It also shows the means and standard deviations and reliabilities for each of 
the varied presentations. 

Table IX further embodies the results by an outside group of many 
superior pupils. The mean with normal pupils would probably have been 
considerably lower than 48.25. 



62 



COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS 



TABLE IX 

Distribution of 7A-grade pupils in a matching test which followed each 
of four varied presentations of an "Artesian Well." 235 selected scores. 

















1 


Test following 


Description 


Exposure ; 


Description; 


Description 


No 


Alone 


Description 


Exposure 


& Exposure 


Presentation 


T-Score Pupils 


T-Score Pupils 


T-Score Pupils 


T-Score 


; Pupils 


T-Score Pupils 


33 


3 


33 


8 


33 


2 


33 


6 


33 


7 


40 


15 


40 


10 


40 


10 


40 


9 


40 


13 


47 


18 


47 


12 


47 


19 


47 


9 


47 


15 


53 


16 


53 


11 


53 


15 


53 


13 


53 


10 


59 


9 


59 


12 


59 


8 


59 


12 


59 


8 


69 


1 


64 


1 


64 


4 


64 


5 


64 


5 


72 


1 


69 


3 






69 
80 


2 

1 


69 


1 




63 




57 




58 




57 




59 


Means 


48.65 




48.95 




49.69 




51.16 




48.25 


3.D.: 


8.10 




10.06 




7.56 




10.54 




9.53 


S.D.M 


1.020 




1.332 




1.001 




1.396 




1.241 



SUMMARY TABLE 

Summary of results by 235 selected 7A-grade pupils in a matching test 
which followed immediately each of four varied presentations of an 
"Artesian Well." Data taken from Table IX. 



Exposure-J- Description ; Exposure ; 

Description Exposure Description Description Difference 



51.16 
51.16 
51.16 



49.69 



49.69 
49.69 



48.65 



48.95 

48.95 

48.65 
48.95 48.65 



1.47 
2.21 
2.51 

.74 
1.04 

.30 



S. D. Diff. 

1.746 
1.955 
1.757 
1.666 
1.429 
1.677 



Chances 
Exp. Coef . to one 



.304 
.409 
.517 
.168 
.263 
.065 



4 
7 

12 
2 
3 
1 



In the above summary, the differences, though hardly reliable,* tend 
to substantiate some of the results of Experiments A and B, except that 
exposure following the description seems to be more effective than the ex- 
posure preceding. This may possibly be explained by the fact that the 
diagram was highl}^ abstract, and therefore more susceptible to interpreta- 
tion after the description than before it. By way of inference we may say 
then, if the pictorial presentation is simpler than the verbal description, it 
should come first, but if it is more abstract it should follow. The experi- 
menter noticed that some of the pupils did not keep their attention upon the 
screen for the full minute allotted to them, Avhen the slide was shown first. 
On the other hand, when the description had been given, the pupils spent 
the full minute gazing intently at the projected diagram. 

The summary of probable improvement follows : 



*A lantern slide experiment conducted by the author in February, 1922, substantiates the 
results of Experiment C to the point of statistical reliability. The findings will be published 
in the near future. 



SECTION VI— EXPERIMENT C 



63 



SUMMARY TABLE 

Summary of the probable improvement from 
achievement on the test alone by the experimental ^ 
four different methods of presentation. 



the assumed potential 
roup under each of the 













Probable 


Exposure 


Description, 


Exposure, 






Improvement 


With 


Then 


Then 


Description 


Without Any 


from 


Description 


Exposure 


Description 


Alone 


Presentation 


Independent 


Achievement 


Achievement 


Achievement 


Achievement 


Achievement 


Achievement 


51.16 








48.25 


2.91 




49.69 


> > • • 


• • ■ ■ 


48.25 


1.44 






48.95 




48.25 


.70 








48.65 


48.25 


.40 



The results of Experiment C may be summed up briefly : 

1. In developing a series of abstract concepts, verbal description, aided 
by a diagrammatic representation, is probably more effective than verbal 
description alone. 

2. It seems that if the diagram is more abstract than the verbal de- 
scription, it should lag in the presentation. 

3. On the other hand, if the diagram is simpler than the verbal de- 
scription, it may well appear in the beginning of the presentation. 



The reader will have noticed that the test blank asked for two prefer- 
ences. The first vote had to do with the liking the pupils had for either 
moving pictures or lantern slides. The second vote registered their opinion 
as to which of the two aids was more effective. The preference of movies 
over slides was approximately 4 to 1, The opinion about learning more 
from movies than from slides stood approximately 3 to 1. 



Following is a summary of the votes: 

Summary of votes bj'' 415 7A-grade pupils. 

Prefer movies 329 

Prefer slides 86 

415 
Summary of votes by 410 7A-grade pupils. 

Can learn more from movies 306 

Can learn more from slides 104 



79% 
21% 



74.6% 

25.4% 



410 



64 COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS 

SECTION VII. EXPERIMENT D— COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVE- 
NESS OF FOUR DIFFERENT METHODS OF PRESENTATION 

The purpose of Experiment D has been to measure some of the factors 
purely against one another rather than in combinations, as in Experiment A. 

Four factors were selected for comparison. They were (1) the study of 
a printed lesson, (2) the same lesson presented orally by the teacher, (3) 
the lesson depicted by a film, and (4) the film presentation accompanied by 
explanatory comments. 

Approximately six hundred 7B-grade pupils participated. They were 
divided arbitrarily into four groups, A, B, C, and D. Four classes made up 
each group, two classes of boj's and two of girls*. These groups were in- 
tended to be equal in mental ability. 

Four films were chosen.* They were "The Study of a Mountain 
Glacier," "The Earth and Worlds Beyond," "The Southern States," and 
"The Growth of Cities and Their Problems." The subject-matter in each 
of these was paraphrased into a two-page typewritten lesson-. The subtitles 
were made paragraph headings, and, to emphasize their importance still 
more, these headings were underlined. The lessons were made of such a 
length that they could be perused slowly and carefully in ten minutes by 
normal seventh grade pupils. 

Before each of the four methods of presentation the pupils were warned 
that they would have only ten minutes to get the lesson and that a test 
would follow. This was done to create a uniform mental set for every 
method and every unit of the experiment. 

Briefly stated, the experiment was conducted as follows : The "Study" 
and "Teacher" groups were taken care of, one class at a time, in their re- 
spective rooms. The passing of the time was announced twice, at the end 
of five minutes and again at the end of eight. Immediately after the presen- 
tation the test blanks were distributed, and at the end of twenty-five min- 
utes all the papers were collected. 

The two film groups were called to the auditorium, one group after 
the other. There the "Film Alone" group watched the moving pictures 
silently. Then they were given the test blanks, all four classes together; 
and, again, the time limit was twenty-five minutes. The "Film-Lecture" 
group, in their turn, watched the pictures while the experimenter com- 
mented in brief and pointed phrases on the essential ideas of the various 
scenes. 

The following irregularities occurred the first week: The "Study" 
and "Teacher" groups had twelve minutes instead of ten; and, to make 



♦Courtesy of the Society for Visual Education, Chicago. 



SECTION VII— EXPERIMENT D 65 

matters worse, the experimenter forgot to warn each of the film groups 
that a test would follow the ''show." 
The lesson of the first week follows : 

THE STUDY OF A MOUNTAIN GLACIER 

Instructions to pupils: 

You will have twelve minutes in which to study this lesson. After that 
you will get a test. Be sure to divide your time so that you do learn all 
the paragraphs equally well. Study as hard as you can. 

The purpose of this lesson is to depict fully the process of glacial for- 
mation, i, e., how a glacier comes to be and what happens to it. 

Most of us have seen pictures of glaciers as they appear among the 
mountain peaks. A glacier so observed is said to be seen in perspective. 
This means that the glacier appears dim and narrow among the distant 
mountain tops and large and clear in the valley near by. 

Cross-seciion of a Glacier and its Valley.— If some enormous mountain 
giant were to cut the glacier in two along its length, the new surface we 
should see would be called a longitudinal cross-section. We must really see 
such a cross-section in order to understand fully what a glacier looks like 
on the inside. 

Hig-h Among the Mountains Snow Accumulates. — Upon mountains of 
sufficient height snow falls at all seasons of the year. Since the temperature 
is very cold, some of this snow remains unmelted from season to season. It 
may accumulate to a depth of 200 to 300 feet, and more. If you think of 
the height of the Palisades on the Hudson, you will get an idea of how deep 
this really is. 

The Weight of the Snow Causes Ice to Form. — Tremendous pressure is 
exerted upon the lower laj^ers of snow by the great weight of the layers 
above. Again, some melting occurs at times, during the heat of the day 
and the warm season of the year. These two — melting and pressure — cause 
the snoAv at the bottom to become transferred into snow-ice. You know 
hov.- the snow in the street melts and hardens. Just so the snow among the 
mountains turns into ice. This granular mass becomes very heavy in time, 
as there is continually fresh snow falling on top of it. 

The Heavy Glacier Moves Very Slowly Down Between Its Mountan 
Walls. — The glacier, because of its enormous weight and the pull of grav- 
ity, begins to move down the mountain side, usually along natural depres- 
sions, which you may call gorges or valleys. The movement is very slow, 
ranging from 1 or 2 inches to 7 feet per day. A glacier moves most rapidly 
on a steep slope, when the volume of ice is very great, and when the tem- 
perature is high. 



66 COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS 

Deep Cracks, or Crevasses, are Caused by a Glacier's Bending Over 
Steep Slopes. — An ice-stream meets a great deal of resistance. The rocks 
underneath slow up the movement of the lower laj^ers very much. The upper 
layers thus slide past the lower ones. In the same way the mountain walls 
slow up the side portions of the ice-stream. And so the middle section 
moves faster. Such irregular movement causes breaking within the ice 
mass, and cracks are formed. When the glacier bends over a steep slope, 
large cracks, or crevasses, appear. These are sometimes hundreds of feet 
deep. 

Stones Rattle Down From the Mountain Side and Form Moraines on 
the Ice. — What is a moraine? How many kinds of moraines are there? A 
moraine is an accumulation (pile) of rocks, ranging in size from huge boul- 
ders to gravel, sand, and clay. When this pile of debris is found along the 
side of a glacier, it is called a lateral moraine. It often happens that two 
ice-streams come together, each bringing two lateral moraines. Two of these 
are now in the middle of the combined glacier and make up what is called 
a medial moraine. Some of these moraines, when the ice has disappeared, 
are several hundred feet high. At the lower end of a glacier, Avhere melting 
occurs, there is likely to be what is called a terminal moraine. 

What is a glacier table? When a large boulder rolls on the ice, and 
stays there for some time, the ice around it is melted by the heat of the 
sun; and this leaves the boulder high up on a thick column of unmelted 
ice. Then it looks very much like a table from the distance. 

When the Glacier Reaches the Sea, Icebergs Break Off. — How is an ice- 
berg formed ? When the lower end of a glacier moves into deep water, the 
ice mass is buoyed up. Why? Because ice is lighter than water. This 
buoying up of the ice from underneath breaks off large icebergs. Only 
about Ys oi a floating iceberg is seen above water; the rest is submerged. 
Some iceberg's coming from the coast of Greenland are so large that the 
visible part towers to a height of 1,000 feet. It is therefore safe to say 
they are as large as mountains. These icebergs are a danger to ships. 
Many of us remember the sinking of the '"Titanic" with a loss of life reach- 
ing almost 1,600. 

In Time the Climate May Grow Warmer, and the Glacier Be Melted 
Back. — Although it must be remembered that the ice in a glacier is always 
moving forward, it will be readily understood that the lower end of the 
glacier may be retreating, that is, it may be melting back. When that hap- 
pens, a stream appears. For instance, the Rhone glacier in France used to 
extend two hundred miles farther down the Rhone Valley. Now a river 
has taken the place of the ice-stream. It is needless to add that human 
habitations often appear in the valleys that have been vacated by retreating 
glaciers. 



SECTION VII— EXPERIMENT D 67 

The Stream from the Melting Glacier Forms a Delta at Its Outlet. — 
AVhat is a delta? A delta is an outlet with many channels cut through a 
large accumulation of sand and clay deposits. ' A stream from a melting 
glacier may carry down a lot of sand and dirt. This, in addition to the 
rocks and gravel left there by the melting ice, forms a bank of sediment 
through which the stream will cut several channels. When that happens, a 
delta appears. 

Summary. — Glaciers are formed from snow which falls high in the 
mountains and by its weight forms a slow moving mass of ice which then 
moves down between rocky walls, carrying away small rocks in its progress, 
until it reaches the sea, where pieces of ice break off to make icebergs, or 
until it reaches a warm valley, where it melts and forms a river. At the 
lowest place in the valley reached by such a glacier large quantities of 
boulders, sands, gravels, and clay are deposited, and they form a terminal 
moraine. Where the climate has become warmer, glaciers have been melted 
back from the old line and have left sheltered valleys, watered by glacial 
streams. In these valleys villages and even cities have arisen, and the 
glacial streams have in many cases furnished power to run great factories. 



In comparing a pictorial with a verbal presentation, it is evident that a 
verbal test, such as the Yes-No Test, tends to favor the verbal presentation. 

Accordingly, in making out the questionnaires for Experiment D, com- 
plementary and middle-ground tests were prepared. To measure distinct 
pictorial concepts, the pupils were asked for simple drawing responses. 
Care was taken to measure only such ideas as had both been shown by the 
film and described in detail by the verbal lesson. 

Fortunately there was a kind of middle ground, common to both types 
of presentation. The subtitles appeared both on the screen and as under- 
lined paragraph headings in the lessons. From the subtitles were con- 
structed ten completion test statements for each week's questionnaire. In 
each of the statements the most important word was left out. No synonyms 
wore credited in the scoring, so as to keep the test a strict measure of 
memory. 

The elliptic statements tested the ten most important ideas or thought 
kernels of the lesson. This fact, in addition to the middle-ground argu- 
ment, favors the conviction that the completion test should be given the 
highest weight in the questionnaire. However, the fact that there were 
only ten steps instead of a net twenty, as in the Yes-No test, reduced this 
superiority probably to equality. 

To make sure that the completion test did not favor the films too much, 
the subtitles, which alternated with non-verbal detail in the film, were given 
the afore-mentioned prominence in the printed lessons ; and the teachers in 



68 COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS 

the experiment were asked specifically to get these headings across verbatim 
and in a very emphatic manner. 

The first week's drawing test Avas a simple request to draw the moun- 
tain glacier as it was conceived by the pupil. The response was scored ac- 
cording to the following scheme : 

Anything resembling mountains 1 point 

Anything resembling a glacier 1 point 

Rocks, stones — a moraine 1 point 

Lateral and medial differentiated 1 point 

Detail depicting the ocean 1 point 

Detail depicting icebergs 1 point 

Detail depicting glacial stream 1 point 

Cross-section of snow and ice layers 1 point 

Cross-section of glacier table 1 point 

Cross-section of crevasse 1 point 

Total 10 points 

All the papers were scored twice, and the second time on a basis of 
twenty points, which made the results more refined and directly comparable 
with the scores of the next three tests. 

In scoring the Yes-No test, the results ran so low that it was necessary, 
for the purpose of converting the original steps into T-scale units, to score 
down to minus steps. This insured a better curve of distribution. 

Other tests were incorporated in the questionnaire. They were de- 
signed to measure the possible influence of the various methods of presenta- 
tion upon choice and conduct. The ''choice" tests explain themselves. The 
"conduct" test was a request to write a short composition. The children 
were led to believe that a neat and well-written composition was the object 
rather than their choice of the subject suggested by the presentation in 
preference over two powerful counter-attractions. 

Copy of the First Week's Test 

Last Name First Grade 

Age years months Date 1921. 

1. Have you ever seen a real glacier? If so draw a circle around 

the word "Yes"; if not, draw it around the word "No" Yes No 

Does glacial formation mean, How a Glacier Comes to Be? Yes No 

Does seeing a glacier in perspective mean seeing a cross-section 

of it? Yes No 



SECTION VII— EXPERIMENT D 69 

If hall" of a glacier were removed M'itli ice-jjieks and shovels, would 

the new surface be a cross-section? Yes No 

Does the temperature rise the higher one climbs? Yes No 

Does snow fall in summer among high mountains ? Yes No 

Does this snow melt away every spring? Yes No 

Does snow ever accumulate to a depth of 300 feet? Yes No 

Is a glacier higher than the mountains among which it lies? Yes No 

Is the pressure less at the bottom of a glacier than in the middle 

of it? Yes No 

Does the snow on the top of the ice mass ever melt? Yes No 

Is a bushel of snow heavier than a bushel of ice? Yes No 

Do warmth and pressure turn snow into ice? Yes No 

Does a glacier follow a valley in its movement? Yes No 

Does the pull of gravity cause a glacier to move ? Yes No 

Does the ice in a glacier move about 200 feet a day? Yes No 

Does a glacier move slower than usual on a steep slope? Yes No 

Do the rocks underneath a glacier slow up the movement? Yes No 

Does the side of a glacier move slower than the middle? Yes No 

Are cracks in the ice mass caused by the heat of the sun? Yes No 

Are these cracks filled with water ? Yes No 

Is a moraine a bank composed of rocks, gravel, sand, and dirt?. . . .Yes No 

Is a moraine in the middle of a glacier called a terminal moraine?. .Yes No 

Is one at the lower end of a glacier called a lateral moraine ? Yes No 

Do two or more glaciers sometimes combine into one glacier? Yes No 

Has a glacier table three legs ? Yes No 

Is the ice around a boulder melted by the warmth from it? Yes No 

Does a glacier table ever break down? Yes No 

Can water break up a large ice mass ? Yes No 

Is glacier ice heavier than water? Yes No 

May an iceberg be several thousand feet thick ? Yes No 

Are there any icebergs near the coast of France ? Yes No 

Are icebergs dangerous to ships? Yes No 

Does the ice in a glacier ever move backwards? Yes No 

May a glacier remain stationary? Yes No 

Does a river ever replace an ice-stream ? Yes No 

Do people stay out of valleys where glacial rivers flow ? Yes No 

Is the delta where the glacial stream begins ? Yes No 

Does a delta have one deep channel ? Yes No 

Does a glacial stream carry clay to its outlets? Yes No 

Does a melting glacier leave rocks at the delta? Yes No 



70 COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS 

2. Professor Atwood 's illustration with and blackboard are 

reproduced by motion pictures. What word is missing ? Answer : c-h-a-1-k. 

A cross-section of a and its valley is highly instructive. 

High among the mountains accumulates. 

Stones rattle down from the mountain sides and form on the ice. 

The weight of the snow causes to form. 

The heavy glacier moves very down the mountain walls. 

Deep cracks are caused by the glacier's bending over steep 

When the glacier reaches the sea, break off. 

In time the climate may grow warmer, and the glacier be melted 

The stream from a melting glacier forms a at its outlet. 

Icebergs floating in the ocean are sometimes as large as 

3. Suppose a rich family offered you an opportunity to accompany 
them this summer on a trip to Alaska where you could climb mountains 
and see real glaciers. And suppose another rich family gave you the 
chance to spend the summer with them in a camp in some Canadian woods 
where you could hunt and fish and go canoe riding 

Would you choose to go to the camp ? Or Yes 

Would you go to see the glaciers instead? Yes 

(Vote for one only.) 

4. Write a short composition (50 Avords or less) on ONE of these three 
subjects : 

How I Spent My Easter Vacation 
The Story of a Mountain Glacier 
What I Hope to Be When Grown Up 



5. Suppose your parents wanted to give you a book for a birthday 
present. If they showed you the following list and asked you to indicate 
the one you liked best, which one would you select ? Check one only. 

The Old Testament 
Longfellow's Poems 
History of the World War 
Glaciers of North America 
Little Women — Alcott 
Huckleberry Finn — Mark Twain 



SECTION VII— EXPERIMENT D 71 

6. Draw the picture of a mountain glacier and what happens to it. 
Include as many of the things as you can remember. 



The four varied presentations of "The Study of a Mountain Glacier " 
constituted only the first unit of Experiment D, which was conducted in 
accordance with the following plan: 

Experiment D. Measuring the Factors of Study, Teacher, Film Alone, and 

Film With Lecture 

Unit I. The Study of a Mountain Glacier. .March 31, 1921 

Study of printed page *10 min. Group A 

Being taught by teacher *10 min. Group B 

Watching film silently 10 min. Group C 

Watching film with remarlis 10 min. Group D 

Unit IT. The Earth and Worlds Beyond. April 7 

Study 10 min. Group D 

Teacher 10 min. Group A 

Film Alone 10 min. Group B 

Film-Lecture 10 min. Group C 

Unit 111. The Southern States. April 14 

Study 10 min. Group C 

Teacher 10 min. Group D 

Film Alone 10 min. Group A 

Film-Lecture 10 min. Group B 

Unit IV. The GroAvth of Cities and Their Problems. April 21 

Study 10 min. Group B 

Teacher 10 min. Group C 

Film Alone 10 min. Group D 

Film-Lecture 10 min. Group A 

As indicated by the foregoing plan, the lesson for the second week was 
"The Earth and Worlds Beyond." In preparing the new questionnaire, a 
40-question test, similar to that of the first week, was made up, also a 
similar completion test. But the second week's drawing test was slightly 
(different. Instead of asking for a single response, it now called for many 
minor tasks. The first of these requested a diagram illustrating the revolu- 
tion of the earth around the sun and indicating the different positions for 
the four seasons. In scoring this, if the pupil showed the sun and the earth 



♦Twelve minutes by mistake. 



72 COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS 

distinctly, he was credited with two points. Furthermore, if he showed the 
earth in four positions correctly related to the sun, he received two more. 
The total credit for the single task was four points. 

The second task called for a diagram showing the relation of the earth 
to the moon and the four changes of the moon. If the pupil showed a circle 
for the earth and another one for the moon, he received two points credit ; 
and, furthermore, if he indicated the four changes intelligently, he received 
two more — altogether four points. 

The remaining six tasks each called for one specific drawing. If in 
the ''day and night'' task the response showed tAvo circles, one of them 
half black and half light, the score was two points. If one of the circles 
(the sun) was missing, the score was only one point. 

It is probably unnecessary^ to explain the remaining tasks in detail. 
Arbitrary standards were set up in each case and the response scored two, 
one, or zero. The total score for the second week's drawing tasks was 
twenty points. 

Following are copies of the second lesson and the various tests of the 
questionnaire : 



THE EARTH AND WOELDS BEYOND 

Instructions to Pupils : You will have 10 minutes in which to study 
this lesson. After that you will get a test. Be sure to divide your time so 
that you learn all the paragraphs equally well. Go ahead now. 

The purpose of this lesson is to give the student (1) a clear understand- 
ing of the motions of the earth and of its relations to the sun and moon, and 
(2) a few glimpses of the worlds beyond as they are seen through the largest 
telescope. 

The Yerkes Observatory of the University of Chicago has the largest 
(refracting) telescope in the world. The telescope is 60 feet long, and it 
weighs 9 tons. It has the largest lens in existence — 40 inches in diameter 
and 900 pounds in weight. An observatory is a building with a round dome 
that revolves. A telescope is an instrument through which a person can 
look to watch the stars. 

The earth rotates. This means that the earth turns on its own axis — 
spins like a top. The rotation of the earth causes day and night. 

The earth revolves about the sun. It takes the earth a whole year to 
swing once aromid the sun. You know how a. button at the end of a string 
can be made to swing around your finger. So the earth revolves. 



SECTION VII— EXPERIMENT D 73 

The revolution of the earth about the suii is one of the two causes of 
our seasons — spring, summer, autumn, and winter. The other cause is the 
fact that the earth's axis is tilted 23 degrees. If you stick a hatpin through 
an apple, tilt the pin a little (so that it isn't quite upright), and then 
walk around a lamp with it, you will get a clear idea of the change in 
seasons. At one place in your trip, the hatpin leans toward the lamp. The 
light shines over the north pole, and the upper half of the apple has sum- 
mer. At the other side of the lamp the hatpin leans away from the light. 
This means darkness for the north pole, and winter. At two other places in 
between and opposite to each other, the hatpin neither leans away nor 
toward the lamp. One of these positions corresponds to autumn and the 
other to spring. 

Spring- — March 21. Sunlight extends from pole to pole on the earth. 
Summer — June 21. North pole has light; south pole in darkness. 
Autumn — September 21. Sunlight extends from pole to pole (again). 

The sun, diameter 866,000 miles, the spots on it much larger than the 
EARTH. Twin spots having spiral structure. The diameter of the sun is 
more than 100 times the diameter of the earth and nearly four times as 
much as the distances between the earth and the moon. 

Eclipsed sun and solar corona. A total eclipse occurs when the moon 
shuts off the sun entirely so that we can see only a shining circle, or a 
corona, as it is called. During such an eclipse we can photograph what is 
happening on the surface of the sun. Eruptions from sun at time of total 
eclipse. Explosions on sun throwing up hot gasses to a height of 80,000 
miles. Eruptive arch over 100,000 miles high. This arch consists of liquid 
and vaporous iron, calcium, and other elements. The sun is twice as hot 
as our largest electrical furnaces. 

Moon and earth drawn to scale. Note how large each is, how far apart. 
Diameter of moon, 2,000 miles ; diameter of earth, 8,000 miles. The dis- 
tance between the earth and moon is 240,000 miles. 

Moon revolves about the earth. "When the moon is high up in the sky 
at the time the sun sets, it is said to be at First Quarter. Full Moon — you 
all know what that is. When the moon is high up in the sky at the time 
the sun rises, it is said to be a Last Quarter. 'And again, you all knoAV what 
New Moon is. 

A long exposure of the New Moon to the photographic plate shows you 

(1) the crescent (that's the thin curved slice you ordinarily see) lighted 
by the sun, and (2) the remainder of the moon by light reflected from the 
earth. . . . When the earth comes between the sun and the moon we have 
a lunar eclipse (or eclipse of the moon). This happens because the Full 
Moon is in the earth's shadow, which shuts off the sunlight. 



74 COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS 

Photograph of the moon show us high mountains and large deep craters. 
Lunar crater Copernicus and the lofty Apennine mountains below and to 
the left. The crater Theophilus, magnified thousands of times — diameter 
64 miles, depth 17,000 feet. The diameter is about as great as the distance 
between here and West Point and the depth is about 25 times the height 
of the Woolworth tower. Smoothest place on moon highly magnified. The 
smooth areas on the moon look like baked mud. 

The solar system consists of the sun and eight planets. The sun is in 
the center and the planets revolve about it. The earth is one of these 
planets. Others are Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn. 

Polar cap of Mars large in its winter. Mars has a longer year than tlie 
earth. Therefore its winter does not come at the same time ours does. The 
cap is said to be a heavy covering of frost. Polar cap small in summer. 
Now the frost seems to be gone. Some people think the planet Mars is in- 
habited. Do you? 

Jupiter and its largest moons. Jupiter is the largest planet in the 
solar system. Instead of having only one moon like our earth, it has many 
moons, three of which are rather large. 

Saturn and its rings. This is the most wonderful and beautiful planet 
because of the ring system around it. These rings consist of countless small 
masses, which swing around the planet like tiny moons. Rings of Saturn 
seen edgewise. When seen thus, these rings appear as thin as the brim of a 
straw hat. Saturn looks like a beautiful toy. 

In addition to planets, there are other bodies swinging about the sun. 
These are called comets. The Comet Morehouse is one of them; Halley's 
Comet is another. A comet has a long fiery tail. Comets come near the sun 
for a short time, then they disappear for many,, many years. 

Milky Way with meteor trail. The Milky Way can be seen every night 
on a clear sky. A meteor is a small body of matter that rushes through 
space at a tremendous speed. The nearer it comes to a planet the stronger 
is it attracted. Sometimes Avhen a meteor comes too near the earth, its 
flight is brought to an end — it falls. The American Museum of Natural 
History has several meteors on exhibition, 

A nebula is a cluster of stars which appear as thick as a fog. Hence 
the name. Examples of nebulas are: Nebula near Rho Ophiuchi; Great 
Nebula in Orion; and "North American" Nebula. 

The science of the sun, planets, and the stars is called astronomy. 



SECTION VII— EXPERIMENT D 75 

Copy of Second Week's Test 

Last Name First Grade 

Age years months. 

1. Look at each question below. If the answer is Yes, draw a 
circle around the word ' ' Yes "; if it is No, draw it around the 
word "No." 
Example : Is the earth round ? ^eS No 



Example : Is the sun cold ? Yes C^ 

Has the Yerkes Observatory the largest telescope in the world?. . .Yes No 

Does the telescope weigh 90 pounds ? Yes No 

Is the lens on the telescope 40 inches in diameter? Yes No 

Has the observatory a stationary (fixed) roof? Yes No 

Does rotation of the earth mean the earth swings around the sun ? . . Yes No 

Does the rotation of the earth cause day and night? Yes No 

Does it take the earth three months to swing once around the sun ? . Yes No 
Does the path which the earth describes as it swings around the sun 

look like a circle ? Yes No 

Are there two causes for the change in our seasons? Yes No 

Is the earth 's axis tilted 23 degrees ? Yes No 

Does the moon cause the change in seasons? Yes No 

Does the sunlight extend beyond the North Pole on March 21 ? Yes No 

Does it extend from pole to pole on September 21? Yes No 

Are the sun spots larger than the earth? Yes No 

Is the diameter of the sun twice that of the earth? Yes No 

Is it a solar eclipse (an eclipse of the sun) when the earth is be- 
tween the moon and the sun? Yes No 

Do the words "solar corona" refer to the shining circle around the 

sun during an eclipse ? Yes No 

Do explosions occur on the surface of the sun? Yes No 

Is the diameter of the moon 8,000 miles? Yes No 

Is the diameter of the moon four times that of the earth? Yes No 

Does the moon revolve about the earth 1 Yes No 

Does the light on the crescent of the New Moon come from the 

sun ? Yes No 

Does the moon give off any light of its own? Yes No 

Is it a lunar eclipse (an eclipse of the moon) when the moon is be- 
tween the earth and the sun ? Yes No 

Are there any high mountains on the moon? Yes No. 

Is the crater Theophilus one mile in diameter? Yes No 

Does a smooth area on the moon look like baked mud? Yes No 

Does the solar system consist of the sun and four planets? Yes No 



76 COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS 

Is the earth a planet ? Yes No 

Has Mars a shorter year than the earth ? Yes No 

Does Mars seem to have hot and cold seasons ? Yes No 

Is Jupiter smaller than the earth ? Yes No 

Has Jupiter more than one moon? Yes No 

Do the rings around one of the planets consist of countless small 

masses which swing around it like tiny moons ? Yes No 

Are these rings wide when seen edgewise? Yes No 

Are there other bodies than the planets which swing around the 

sun ? Yes No 

Can the Milky Way be seen with the naked eye? Yes No 

Is a meteor as large as a planet ? Yes No 

Is there a "North African" nebula? Yes No 

Is the earth as warm as the sun ? Yes No 

2. Look at each sentence below and fill in the missing word. 
Example: The earth is What word is missing? Ans. "Round." 

The telescope of the Yerkes Observatory is feet long. 

The earth about the sun. 

The sun has a of 866,000 miles. 

The distance between the earth and the moon is miles. 

The crater Theophilus on the moon is feet deep. 

The polar cap of is large in its winter. 

The largest planet in the solar system is called 

The planet with the rings around it is called 

A comet differs from a planet in that it has a 

A nebula is a cluster of 

3. Draw a diagram showing the revolution of the earth around the sun 
and indicate the four positions for the different seasons. 



4. Suppose you were in Chicago for a visit. And suppose that one evening 
you had the chance to go to one of tAvo places: (1) a moonlight boat ride 
on Lake Michigan, and (2) a trip to the Yerkes Observatory, where you 
could peep at the stars through the largest telescope. 

Would you choose Lake Michigan ? .Yes 

Or would you go to the Observatory ? Yes 

(Vote for one only.) 



SECTION VII— EXPERIMENT D 77 

5. Draw a diagram of the earth and moon and indicate the four changes 
— First Quarter, Full Moon, Last Quarter, and New Moon. Don't forget 
to show where the sun is at each change. 



6. Suppose you went to the library to get a book to read. And suppose 
on the librarian's desk you saw these six books — 

Dere Mabel, 

Over the Top, ; 

History of the World War, 

The Earth and Worlds Beyond, 

Main Street, 

Keeping Up With Lizzie, 

Which one would you take out? Check one of the above — ONE ONLY. 

7. Write a short composition on one of the following subjects: Remem- 
ber, choose one onlj^ Leave the other two alone. (50 words) : 

(1) How Best to Spend One's Vacation, 

(2) The Earth and World Beyond, 

(3) What a Child's Ambition Should Be. 



8. Show by diagram how day and 10. Draw the eclipsed sun with the 
night occur. solar corona. 

11. Draw the New Moon. 

9. Draw the planet with the sys- 
tem of rings around it. 12. Draw a comet, 

13. Draw a nebula. 



For the third week the lesson was "The Southern States." 
The questionnaire in all its details was similar to that of the second 
week. 

Following are copies of the lesson and the questionnaire : 



78 COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS 

THE SOUTHERN STATES 

Instructions to Pupils : You will have 10 minutes in which to study 
this lesson. After that you will get a test. Be sure to divide your time so 
that you learn all the paragraphs equally well. Go ahead now. 

The Southern States comprise the southeastern corner of the United 
States. This section extends from Texas in the west to the Carolinas on 
the eastern seacoast. Our lesson begins with the Coastal Plain. 

An old sea bottom was uplifted, forming the Coastal Plain, within 
which lies most of the southern region. The land tells its own story. 

A low, level belt borders the sea, with loose, sandy soil, and tropical 
plants. If you were there, this is what you might see : a sandy beach, lined 
with palm trees. You Avould see the sea in the distance, here or there a hut, 
and rows of palm trees on either side of it and along the walks. The land 
would be level and the soil loose and sandy. 

The Florida Keys — these remarkable coral reefs are found in the warm 
shallow water near the southern tip of Florida. They can best be seen from 
the water as you look toward the land. Coral reefs are built up with the 
chalky dead bodies of countless tiny sea animals. 

Where the low Coastal Plain meets the foot hills of the Appalachians. 
As you go from the low level plain near the sea coast toward the southern 
Appalachian Mountains, you come to a hilly country. The view is beau- 
tiful. The hills are covered with woods, and the valleys are spotted with 
plantations here and there. 

The new South is developing its manufactures and mines, as well as its 
plantations. It is still the world's greatest cotton-growing region. This 
is about how a young cotton field appears : A farm can be seen not far 
away, with barn on the right and house on the left. The field consists of 
rows of low plants with fairly large leaves. 

The cotton "boll," or pod, cracks open when the seeds are ripe. Then 
the fiber and seeds are picked by hand. The cotton plants stand in rows 
far enough apart for people to walk between conveniently. The workers — 
men, women, and children — are usually negroes. They carry bags. The 
bolls are picked and thrust into the bags. A cracked boll is not unlike a 
grain of popped corn ; only, of course, it is soft and fluffy. 

The plants do not all ripen at the same time, so each field must be 
picked several times. With hand labor, this makes cotton-picking very 
expensive. This is not like harvesting wheat or corn where you cut the 
whole crop at once and with machinery. In the case of cotton, every boll 
has to be picked singly and by hand. 

The interior of a cotton factory with ginning machinery in operation 
would show vou a man standing before a short but wide wooden chute which 



SECTION VII— EXPERIMENT D 79 

shakes the cotton lint into a large bag on the floor. At another place you 
would see a large bin full of cotton seeds Avhich had just been separated 
from the lint. 

The clean lint is pressed into bales weighing 500 pounds. For every 
pound of lint there are two pounds of seeds, with many valuable uses. The 

cotton is pressed into bales by heavy machinery. The bale lies on a burlap 
mat; another mat is spread over the top. Then the two are strapped to- 
gether with four straps on each side of the bale. 

The great rice crops of Texas and Arkansas are possible through labor- 
saving machinery. Rice, being a crop like wheat, is harvested like it. 

At harvest time the irrigated fields are drained, and reapers cut the 
stalks. It is a pleasure to watch reapers cut SAvaths along a ripe rice field 
and drop bundles by the thousands along their paths. These bundles are 
put up in tiny stacks here and there all over the field. 

Threshing is also done by machinery. The thresher is a large machine 
on wheels and stands in the middle of the field. It is driven with a belt 
by a steam engine. The machine looks much like a wheat thresher and 
somewhat like a corn shredder. Teams haul the bundles to the thresher. 
There they are fed into the machine. The straw is driven away by means of 
a blower. The rice is threshed into large bags. 

Sewing up the bags before they are sent to the mill. The work is done 
by men who stand over them with needle and thread. The bags are then 
sent to the mill. 

Here experts grade the rice according to the size and quality of the 
grains. This is done on a long table next to the windows. Large sheets of 
paper lie side by side on the table. On each sheet is a sample of rice. A man 
examines these samples. 

Most of our sugar cane comes from Louisiana. In the fertile Mississippi 
flood plain this giant grass grows 10 or 15 feet tall. A man can get lost 
in a field of sugar cane, because the grass is twice as tall as he. 

In planting, sections of the stalk are laid end to end in long furrows. 

The scene is something like this. A furrow has been plowed. A wagon 
loaded with cane stalks is being hauled along. Negroes — men and women — 
lay pieces of stalk into the furroAv. These are then covered up. 

Cultivating a sugar-cane field. The work is done by machine cultiva- 
tors, each of which is drawn by a team of mules. The mules walk between 
the rows ; the cultivator passes over a row and destroys the weeds on either 
side of it. The drivers stand on the cultivators. Usually there is more 
than one team on the field, and a foreman among them. The foreman rides 
on a horse. 



80 COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS 

Stripping and cutting- the sugar cane. The work is done in this manner : 
The leaves are stripped from the upright stalks. Then the stalks are cut 
near the ground and thrown into a bundle to be carried away. 

Fruit-raising is an important industry throughout the South. This is 
one of Florida's thriving orange groves. The trees in an orange grove are 
rather large and spreading. In order to pick oranges, a man must put a 
ladder against the branches or the trunk. An orange picker carries a bag 
hanging from his shoulder. As he picks the oranges, he drops them into the 
tag. ^ -•'^^'^^^111 

Here is a fruit that grows pointing upv/ard. It is no other than the 
familiar banana cluster. But here it still hangs on the tree. 

The sweet potato is cultivated near the coast. Like its Irish cousin, the 
sweet potato is planted in rows, so that it can be cultivated easily. 

Peanut fanning began to increase when the World War cut off the 
foreign supply. At harvest time the vines are pulled up, dried in the sun, 
and then stacked. Each stack has a pole in the center. Threshing peanuts. 
A thresher separates the peanuts from the vines. The peanuts tumble down 
a shaking chute into a sack which a man holds. 

Copy of Third Week's Test 

Last Name First Grade , 

Age years months. Date 1921 

Do Each Test as You Come to It 

1. (Look at each question below. If the answer is Yes, draw a circle 
around the word "Yes," and if it is No, draw it around "No.") 

Have the Southern States a high rocky coast? Yes No 

Does most of the southern region lie within the Coastal Plain?. . . .Yes No 

Is the soil on this belt loose and sandy ? Yes No 

Are the Florida Keys extinct volcanoes ? Yes No 

Are they in the sea ? Yes No 

Are the foot hills at the southern tip of Florida ? Yes No 

Are southern plantations grouped in villages? Yes No 

Is the new South developing its mines? Yes No 

Is the South still the world 's greatest cotton-growing region ? . . . . Yes No 

Does the cotton boll break open when the seeds are ripe? Yes No 

Is cotton picked with machinery ? Yes No 

Do all the cotton plants ripen at the same time? Yes No 

Is the work of picking cotton expensive ? Yes No 

Is ' ' gin ' ' the negro 's word for ginger ? Yes No 

Are the cotton seeds in the factory thrown into a large bin? Yes No 

Is the cotton lint baled with machinery? Yes No 

Do the cotton bales each weigh 200 pounds? Yes No 



SECTION VII— EXPERIMENT D 81 

Are there two pounds of lint to every pound of seeds? Yes No 

Is rice cut b}^ hand ? Yes No 

Are rice fields Avatered by irrigation? Yes No 

Does the rice thresher stand on wheels? Yes No 

Is it driven by horse power ? Yes No 

Is the straw removed by a blower ? Yes No 

Is the rice sent to the mill in bags? Yes No 

Is the rice at the mill graded by experts ? Yes No 

Are the samples to be graded poured into pans? Yes No 

Is the land along the lower Mississippi called the flood plain? Yes No 

Is sugar cane a root plant like the sweet potato? Yes No 

In planting, are the sugar cane pieces laid in long furrows? Yes No 

Are the stalks hauled to the field on the wheelbarrows? Yes No 

Is a sugar cane cultivator drawn by mules? Yes No 

Does the driver sit on the cultivator? Yes No 

Does the foreman of the field ride on a mule ? Yes No 

Is the sugar cane stripped by machinery ? Yes No 

Are the stalks cut by hand ? Yes No 

Is Florida famous for its orange groves? Yes No 

Is an orange tree several hundred feet high? Yes No 

Do bananas grow pointing downward? Yes No 

Are sweet potatoes planted in rows? Yes No 

Are peanut vines harvested with a reaper? Yes No 



2. (Look at each sentence below and fill in the missing Avord) : 

An old sea bottom was thus forming the Coastal Plain. 

The Florida Keys — these remarkable are found in the warm shallow 

water near the southern tip of Florida. 

The new South is developing its manufactures, as well as its 

The cotton separates the seeds from the fluffy fiber. 

The great crops of Texas and Arkansas are possible through labor- 
saving machinery. 

Most of our sugar cane comes from 

Fruit-raising is an important in the South. 

At the mill experts grade the rice according to the size and quality of 
the 

The sweet potato is cultivated near the 

Peanut farming began to increase when the cut off the foreign 

supply. 



82 COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS 

3. Suppose you went to the library this "week-end to take out a book 
to read. And suppose on the librarian's desk you saw these six books: 

Dere Mabel, 
Over the Top, 
History of the War, 
Story of the Coastal Plain, 
The Future of Bolshevism, 
Main Street, 
Which one would j^ou take out? Check one, and one only. 

4. Suppose a rich family offered you an opportunity next fall to spend 
the Avinter with them in California. And suppose another rich family 
offered you the chance to go to Florida with them. 

Would you choose to go to Florida? Yes 

Or would 3^ou choose California? Yes 

(Vote for one only.) 

5. (Below draw just what it says you should draw, nothing else. Be 
brief) : 

Draw a sandy beach lined with palm Draw the head of one rice stalk, 
trees right here. 

Draw fulI-groAvn sugar cane plants 
Draw wooded hills and a valley with ^^^^ ^ ^^^^ ^^^i^^ them. 



plantations right here. 



Draw three or four rows of young 
cotton plants here. 



Draw the position of an orange 
picker at work. 



Draw a banana cluster on a tree. 



Draw a cotton boll here. 

Draw a bale of cotton strapped. Draw peanuts on the vine. 



6. Write a short composition (50 words or less) on ONE of the follow- 
ing subjects. Choose one only. Leave the other two alone. 

(1) What I Shall Do This Summer, 

(2) How the Coastal Plain Was Formed, 

(3) Am I Going to Be Rich? 



SECTION VII— EXPERIMENT D 83 

For the fourth week the lesson was "The Growth of Cities and Their 
Problems." The lesson and tests were similar to those of the previous 
weeks. 

There was, however, an addition to the questionnaire. Three pairs of 
votes were called for to throw light upon the question of the comparative 
effectiveness of (1) studying and being taught, (2) watching a film silently 
and listening to a running comment along with it, and (3) a lesson in words 
and a lesson in pictures. A parallel preference vote M^as also called for. 

Following is a summary of the votes : 

Pupils who think they learn more from studying 23 percent 

Pupils who think they learn more from being taught 77 percent 

Pupils Avho prefer to study 25 percent 

Pupils who prefer being taught 75 percent 

Pupils who think thej^ learn more from silent film 27 percent 

Pupils who think they learn more from film-lecture 73 percent 

Pupils who prefer silent film 28 percent 

Pupils who prefer film-lecture 72 percent 

Pupils who think they learn more from words 51 percent 

Pupils who think they learn more from pictures 49 percent 

Pupils who prefer verbal presentation .47 percent 

Pupils who prefer picturization 53 percent 

B.y way of interpretation, we may sslj that the preference for being 
taught over studying is decisive, being one-half the way between pure 
chance and absolutely certainty. The preference for the film-lecture over 
the film alone is equally decisive. But the preference for words over pic- 
tures is pure chance. 

Following are copies of the fourth week's lesson and the various 
tests of the questionnaire : 

GROWTH OF CITIES AND THEIR PROBLEMS 

Instruction to pupils : You will have 10 minutes in which to study this 
lesson. After that you will get a test. Be sure to divide your time so that 
you learn all the paragraphs equally well. Go ahead now. 

A rapidly groAving city decided to learn from the experiences of others. 
So a city official was sent on a trip to various cities, large and small, to 
study their problems. On his return he made the following report: 

Unpaved streets cause wear and breakdowns. A muddy street, streaked 
with deep ruts, puts a groat strain upon all kinds of vehicles — wagons, 
automobiles, trucks — and quite often causes breakdowns. Autos and trucks 



84 COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS 

get stuck and have to be heaved out of their plight with logs and old boards, 
while wagons are hauled along -with considerable difficulty. 

Goods roads bring trade. A good road makes riding a pleasure. It is 
a wise toAvn that builds and maintains roads leading from all directions into 
its business district. Farmers follow the good roads. 

Well-paved streets improve town and business. A town with well-paved 
streets looks neat and attractive. Not onlj^ do such streets mean more 
people and more trade, but they mean also more business places, such as 
garages, which meet the needs of the motorists. 

Cobble-stones g-ive way to better pavements. When the cobble-stones 
become too rough on the traffic, a gang of laborers is brought around. The 
cobbles are torn up, and a new smooth pavement takes their place. 

Cities built along streams have to maintain bridges. A city built on 
one bank of a river can not draw much trade from the other side unless 
it builds bridges to allow street cars, wagons, trucks, and automobiles to 
cross the river. Maintaining bridges means more business. 

Ditch drains are unsanitary. The open ditch drain, which becomes un- 
healthy with the steady increase of waste, must be covered and finally gives 
way to the immense sewer system of a large city. 

Dirty streets cause disease. Old tins, rubbish, and garbage, instead of 
being thrown into the alley, must be dumped into regular receptacles which 
are emptied by the garbage collectors of the city. 

Flies hatch here. The place referred to is a back yard, probably in the 
rear of a crowded tenement house, where there is a pile of rubbish. 

This breeds mosquitoes. And here is meant the city dumping ground, 
where manure, rubbish, and other waste is dumped into a stagnant pool of 
water. 

Good public sentiment is for a clean city. A clean city is the result 
of a sufficiently large street cleaning force — enough men, enough waste 
cans, and enough carts and wagons to haul all the ashes and rubbish away. 

Organized street cleaning. This means a regular force of street sweep- 
ers ; brooms, shovels, boxes and cans ; carts and wagons ; and self -driven 
machine street sweepers, which move along like a steam roller or a truck. 

Wooden tenements are "fire traps." If a fire breaks out in one of these 
many-story apartment houses, the people living in the upper stories are 
frequently barred from escape by a burning stairway and burned to death. 

Proper building laws require safety from fire. Not only must the stair- 
ways be built fireproof or nearly so, but fire escapes must be put up so 
that the tenants on each floor can get to them easilj^ in the case of fire. 



SECTION VII— EXPERIMENT D 85 

Growth of modern fire departments. The modern fire department be- 
gan with tlie bucket brigade. Next came the steam fire engine drawn by a 
team of swift and fiery steeds. Now we have the automobile engine, which 
rushes to the burning building and fastens the hose to the hydrant. 

Traffic rules become necessary. We all know how a street is blocked by 
carts, wagons, trucks, and people at a market place. We also know the 
congestion at a busy street crossing, say. Fifth Avenue and Forty-second 
Street. In such cases traffic rules become necessary. 

Elevated and subw^ays are needed in large cities. In time one street 
level is not enough to accommodate all the crowds and traffic. Then an 
elevated is built over the street. This gives two levels for traffic and 
transportation. Subways underneath give a third level. 

Cities need strong police force. Policemen are needed for what are 
called ' ' beats, ' ' for regulating traffic ; for coast patrol ; for detective work. 
Some policemen are mounted, some in automobile squads, and some are at 
headquarters. The police guard the people and maintain order. 

Small water systems are soon outgrown. The modest sociable town 
pump, where people go with pails for water, must in time give way to a 
large pumping station and pipe lines laid all over the city. 

Large cities use much water. The street sprinklers need a great deal 
of water, which they take from the hydrants. Water is needed of course 
for all the homes and factories and business establishments. Public foun- 
tains and swimming pools also use up a considerable amount. 

A city pumping station. The station pumps the water from a reservoir 
up into the high buildings. Water, in order that it can flow freely on the 
top stories, must have a great deal of pressure. Also, when there is a fire, 
there must be a high Avater pressur(?. 

Cities often outgrow their schools. There are two main reasons Avhy 
our cities outgrow their schools. One is that the school population grows 
larger as the citj' grows larger. The other reason is that we send our 
children into school for longer and longer periods. Instead of three or 
four years, as of old, many now spend twelve and more years in school. 

Portable barracks are erected to accommodate the overflow. These 
are small frame buildings put up temporarily on the school grounds when 
the regular building does not hold all the pupils. They are easily removed. 

Well-equipped schools make better citizens. Where there are manual 
training and domestic science departments, shops and well-equipped class- 
rooms the pupils learn better and thus become better citizens. 

Crowded blocks are poor playgrounds. There are too many people, 
stands, carts, and vehicles in the way for children to play undisturbed. 



86 COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS 

Public parks and playgrounds are better. There is little danger here 
of being run over by vehicles. There are lawns to play upon and perhaps 
pools to wade in. Playground apparatus, such as swings, slides, and merry- 
go-rounds add much to the happiness of the children. 

Copy of Fourth Week's Test 

Last Name First Grade 

Age years months. Date 1921 

Do Each Test as You Come to It 

1. (Look at each question below. If the answer is Yes, draw a circle 
around the word "Yes"; if it is No, draw it around "No.") 

Is it true that unpaved streets cause wear on vehicles ? Yes No 

Is it true that poor roads bring trade ? Yes No 

That well-paved streets improve the looks of a town? Yes No 

That well-paved streets spoil business ? Yes No 

That dirty streets are harmless ? Yes No 

That flies hatch in filthy backyards ? Yes No 

That mosquitoes breed in trees ? Yes No 

That organized street cleaning is a good thing? Yes No 

That wooden tenements are safe to live in? Yes No 

That cities have always had fire engines? Yes No 

That traffic rules are necessary for crowded street corners? Yes No 

That elevated railwaj^s are needed in a large cit.y ? Yes No 

That subways are not necessary ? Yes No 

That town pumps are better than a water system? Yes No 

That cities maintain pumping stations ? Yes No 

Is it true that portable schools are put up near crowded school 

buildings ? Yes No 

That they are put up only temporarily ? Yes No 

That crowded blocks make good playgrounds? Yes No 

That public parks are better than crowded blocks? Yes No 

That public playgrounds are too expensive ? Yes No 

Is it easier to pull a wagon over an unpaved street than over a 

paved street ? Yes No 

Do good roads mean better business? Yes No 

Do poor roads mean more garages ? Yes No 

Are cobble-stones rough on traffic? Yes No 

Is a ferry better than a bridge ? Yes No 

Is a sewer system better than a ditch drain? Yes No 

Should garbage be thrown on vacant lots ? Yes No 

Do flies hatch in the snow ? Yes No 

Do mosquitoes breed in manure piles? Yes No 



SECTION VII— EXPERIMENT D 87 

Does it pay to keep a city clean ? Yes No 

Should stairways in tenements be fireproof If Yes No 

Should there be a fire-escape in factories? Yes No 

Is a fire hose called a hydrant ? Yes No 

Are traffic regulations a solution to a city problem 'i Yes No 

Are street ears better than the elevated? Yes No 

Are subways better for transportation than elevated roads? Yes No 

Does a large city need mounted police ? Yes No 

Is all the city water used up by the buildings ? Yes No 

Is great water pressure needed for putting out fires? Yes No 

Do the people believe more in schools now than ten years ago?. . . .Yes No 

2. (Look at each sentence below and fill in the missing word) : 
Unpaved streets cause wear and 

give way to better pavements. 

Cities built along streams have to maintain 

drains are unsanitary. 

Good public sentiment is for a city. 

Proper building laws require safety from 

need a strong police force. 

Large cities use much 

C!ities often their schools. 

Well-equipped schools make better 

3, (BeloAv draw just what it says you should draw, nothing else) : 

Draw a muddy street with ruts right Draw a modern fire engine, 
here. 



Draw a bridge over a river here. 



Draw a town pump. 
Draw a hydrant. 



Draw a pile of rubbish here. 

Draw a wooden tenement here, ^^^^^^ ^ portable school. 

Draw a fire escape here. Draw playground apparatus. 



88 COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS 

Suppose a rich family offered you an opportunity this summer to travel 
with them from city to city to study municipal problems. And suppose 
another rich family gave you the chance to accompany them on a trip to 
war-torn Europe — 

Would you choose the trip to Europe ? Yes 

Or would you help study city problems ? Yes 

Suppose you went to the library this week-end to take out a book to 
read. And suppose that on the librarian's desk you saw these books: 

Little Women, 
Huckleberry Finn, 
History of the War, 
City Problems, 
Bolshevism, 
Main Street. 
Which one of these books would you take out? Check one only. 

4. You will now be asked to vote on several important questions. Be 
sure you understand exactly what is meant before you cast your vote. 
From which method do you think you learned more, (1) studying 

the printed page, or (2) being taught by the teacher? No. 1 or 

No. 2? 

(Write either the figure 1 or the figure 2 in this space) 

Which method did you like better, No. 1 or No, 2 ? 

From which method do you think you learned more, (1) watching 

the moving picture silently or (2) having somebody talk while 

the picture is being shown ? No. 1 or No. 2 ? 

Which method did you like better, No. 1 or No. 2? 

From which method do you think you learned more, (1) a lesson 

in words (that means both stud.ying and being taught) or (2) a 

lesson in pictures (that means watching moving pictures). 

Remember, it means words against pictures. No. 1 or No. 2? 

Which method did you like better, No. 1 or No. 2? 

Write a short composition (50 words or less) on ONE of the following 
subjects. Choose one only. Leave tlie other two alone. 

Going to the Adirondacks for Two Weeks, 
Growth of Cities and Their Problems, 
What Is Mv Goal : Riches or Service ? 



SECTION VII— EXPERIMENT D 89 

The result of the entire experiment, with the original steps converted 
into T-Scale units, are embodied in Tables 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8, Appen- 
dix B. 

The composite averages from the various methods of presentation, to- 
gether with the differences, are given in the following summary : 

SUMMARY TABLE 

Summary of composite averages by all 7B-grade pupils in the four 
weekly sets of tests M'hich followed immediatelj" the varied presentations 
of the four successive lessons, respectively : 

Film 

49.05 

49.05 

49.05 

50.81 
50.81 
50.81 

51.59 
51.59 
51.59 

We see from the foregoing summary that in the Yes-No averages the 
"Film Alone" is the lowest. Comparing this with the "Study" and 
"Teacher" averages, we discover a rank relationship which agrees with 
that found by Lacy in his experiment.* 

The completion test averages are significant. The}^ are by far the 
best measure of comparative effectiveness, especially between "Study" and 
"Film Alone." The pupils had the opportunity to read the statements on 
both the printed page and the screen. If they did not remember the omis- 
sions so well in the case of "Study," the verbal detail after each paragraph 
heading was manifestly less effective than the pictorial detail following each 
subtitle. 

Objections may be raispd. The first is that the statements as subtitles 
profited unduly by the law of contrast in that they alternated with pictorial 
detail. In answer it may be said that the test was designed for just this 





Study 


Teacher 


Yes -No Test 


50.06 


50.36 


Averages : 


50.06 
50.06 


50.36 
50.36 


Completion 
Test Ave: 


49.43 
49.43 
49.43 


47.87 

47.87 

47.87 




46.90 


47.27 


Drawing Test 


46.90 




Averages : 


46.90 


47.27 
47.27 



'ilm-Lecture 


Difference 




.30 




—1.01 


50.72 


.66 




—1.31 


50.72 


.36 


50.72 


1.67 




—1.56 




1.38 


51.71 


2.28 




2.94 


51.71 


3.84 


51.71 


.90 




.37 




4.69 


54.07 


7.17 




4.32 


54.07 


6.80 


54.07 


2.48 



♦Teachers College Record, November, 1919. 



90 COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS 

purpose, namely, whether a statement, illustrated pictorially, is more im- 
pressive than if illustrated with words. 

Another objection is that the verbal detail was not as rich as the 
pictorial, and so failed to make the statement as impressive in "Study" as 
in the "Film." But, with the time constant, why wasn't the verbal detail 
as rich ? Again, this is just what we want to measure. 

The drawing test averages are as expected. The drawing test mani- 
festly measured visual impressions, Avhich only the pictorial presentations 
could produce. 

Conservative educators are prone to question this test on the ground 
that it distinctly favors the pictorial presentation. But why question it 
and at the same time approve the Yes-No test which distinctly favors the 
verbal presentation? If the pictorial presentation, over and above effecting 
verbal learning, produces extra visual impressions, while the verbal pres- 
entation does not, and if, on the other hand, the verbal presentation can 
only suggest impressions, provided the learner is fortunate enough to have 
already a stock of closely related imagery available — then the pictorial 
presentation effects an increment in learning (or prevents many miscon- 
ceptions) which Ave want to measure. Theoretically a drawing test is as fair 
as a verbal form in comparing the effectiveness of pictorial with verbal 
methods of presentation. 

For the purpose of gaining a general idea, it was thought wise to com- 
bine the composite averages of the three separate tests into a single average ; 
and since the averages were uniformly expressed in terms of T-Scale units, 
they were combined on equal terms. 



SUMMARY TABLE 

Summary of averaged averages made by all 7B-grade pupils after each 
of the four different methods of presentation. 

Study Teacher Film 

48.80 48.50 

48.80 .... 50.48 

48.80 

48.50 50.48 

48.50 

50.48 



In the foregoing summary we see that the "Teacher" is lowest, 
"Study" next, "Film Alone" a little higher, and "Film-Lecture" the high- 
est of the four. 

The fact that the "Teacher" is lower than "Study" can probably be 
accounted for. The teachers in the experiment sometimes digressed from 



Film-Lecture 


Difference 




-.30 




1.68 


52.17 


3.37 




1.98 


52.17 


3.67 


52.17 


1.69 



SECTION VII— EXPERIMENT D 81 

tlie subject-matter of the lesson. However worthy the digressions might 
have been, they were not measured by the tests ; and they took up valuable 
time which should have been devoted to the relevant information. 

It is difficult to believe that the "Teacher" is really less effective than 
either ''Study" or the "Film Alone." The truth is that the "Teacher" 
presentation was too elusive for the best experimental control. However, 
it may be safe to assert that the "Teacher" is decidedly less effective than 
the "Film-Lecture" presentation. 



The 7B-grade pupils who participated in Experiment D had been 
given the National Intelligence Test, Scale A, the previous fall; and, partly 
on the basis of the scores they made then, they had been organized into 
classes for the new school year. 

This fact was unfortunately overlooked when the six hundred pupils 
were divided into the four experimental groups. Thus it happened that the 
intelligence test scores did not overlap so well as did those in Experiment A. 
Only sixtj'-four scores could be selected from each group, thus yielding a 
total of 256. 

The selected results, in terms of T-Scale units, for each of the tests 
following each of the four varied presentations of "The Study of a Moun- 
tain Glacier" are embodied in Table X, which contains also the means, 
standard deviations and their reliabilities. See Table X. 



92 COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS 

TABLE X 

Distribution of scores made by 256 selected 7B-grade pupils in the three 
tests which followed immediately each of four varied presentations of ' ' The 
Study of a Mountain Glacier" on March 31, 1921. Original scores con- 
verted into T-Scores : 



Completion 


Study (A) 


Teacher (B) 


Film (C) 


Film-Lecture (D) 


T-Score 


Pupils 


Pupils 




Pupils 




Pupils 


26 




3 




, , 




. . 






1 


33 




3 




9 




1 






4 


41 




14 




13 




12 






10 


48 




16 




20 




19 






12 


53 




12 




10 




10 






14 


58 




9 




10 




6 






8 


62 




7 




2 




10 






6 


68 




^ , 




, , 




4 






7 


73 




, , 




, , 




2 






1 


79 




64 




64 




64 






1 
64 


Means : 




48.61 




47.25 




50.83 




52.34 


S.D. 




9.15 




8.17 




9.15 




10.77 


S.D.M. 




1.144 




1.021 




1.144 






1.346 


Yes-No 


S (A) 


T(B) 


F(C) 


FL(D) 


Drawing 


S (A) 


T(B) 


F(C) 


FL (D) 


T- Score 


Pupils 


Pupils 


Pupils 


Pupils 


T-Score 


Pupils 


Pupils 


Pupils 


Pupils 


21 






1 




32 


8 


1 


8 


3 


27 


, , 




4 




40 


19 


21 


5 


1 


31 


1 


2 


2 




46 


19 


21 


7 


3 


34- 


2 


] 


3 


"i 


50 


7 


6 


8 


4 


36 


2 


1 


5 


2 


53 


7 


5 


8 


6 


39 


4 


3 


2 


2 


55 


2 


2 


4 


10 


42 


6 


6 


6 


10 


58 


2 


5 


14 


13 


45 


8 


3 


7 


6 


. 61 




1 


3 


3 


48 


7 


5 


9 


6 


64 




1 


5 


11 


50 


8 


5 


7 


10 


67 








2 


53 


6 


7 


4 


5 


69 




i 


i 


6 


55 


6 


6 


6 


6 


74 






1 


1 


58 


4 


7 


1 


5 


79 








1 


60 


2 


4 


1 


7 




— 


— 


— 


— 


62 


4 


3 


1 


2 




64 


64 


64 


64 


65 


1 


4 


3 


1 












68 


2 


3 


1 














71 


1 


3 


1 














74 




















77 


64 


i 

64 


64 


1 

64 












Means : 


49.92 


53.36 


45.97 


50.52 




44.33 


46.83 


51.25 


57.56 


S. D. 


8.76 


10.18 


10.62 


8.05 




6.81 


7.09 


10.05 


9.08 


S. D. M. 


1.095 


1.273 


1.328 


1.006 




.851 


.866 


1.256 


1.135 



The selected scores, in terms of T-Scale units, resulting from remain- 
ing three questionnaires, and their corresponding means, standard deviations 
and reliabilities, are embodied in Tables XI, XTI, and XIII. 



SECTION VII— EXPERIMENT D 



93 



TABLE XI 

Distribution of scores made by 256 selected 7B-grade pupils in the 
three tests which followed immediately each of the four varied presenta- 
tions of ''The Earth and Worlds Beyond," on April 7, 1921. Original 
scores converted into T-Scores : 



Completion 


Study (D) 


Teacher (A) 


Film (B) 


Film-Lecture (C) 


T-Score 




Pupils 






Pupils 




Pupils 




Pupils 




32 




4 






6 




5 






4 




41 




11 






23 




11 






8 




48 




11 






14 




27 






12 




53 




12 






9 




5 






13 




58 




14 






8 




10 






15 




63 




10 






2 




3 






6 




67 











2 




2 






1 




71 




2 






, , 




1 






3 




77 




64 






64 




64 






2 
64 




Means : 




51.98 




47.00 




49.16 




53.17 




S.D. 




9.32 






8.64 




8.65 




10.08 




S.D.M. 




1.165 






1.08 




1.081 






1.26 




Yes-No. 


S(D) 


T(A) 


F(B) 


FL(C) 


Drawing 


S(D) 


T(A) 


F(B) 


FL(C) 


T-Score 


Pupils 


Pupils 


Pupils 


Pupils 


T-Score 


Pupils 


Pupils 


Pupils 


Pupils 


21 




1 








35 


21 


11 


3 




1 


28 


1 


1 


1 


2 




41 


10 


14 


3 




2 


31 


1 


1 


1 







45 


13 


14 


7 




2 


34 





3 


4 


3 




49 


, 6 


4 


7 




9 


38 


4 


3 


6 


4 




51 


5 


9 


9 




7 


41 


5 


7 


5 


4 




54 


1 


6 


7 




7 


45 


11 


11 


7 


12 




56 


5 


2 


6 




3 


48 


9 


9 


5 


5 




58 





1 


6 




5 


52 


8 


11 


9 


9 




59 





1 


3 




6 


55 


6 


3 


6 


7 




61 


1 


1 


3 




3 


58 


5 


6 


10 


7 




62 


2 










5 


61 


5 


2 


6 


5 




64 


, , 









4 


64 


4 


4 


2 







65 













1 


67 


2 


1 


2 


1 




66 













1 


69 


2 


1 




1 




67 













3 


72 









3 




69 













3 


77 


1 


•• 




1 




72 
75 
79 








1 


2 




1 

1 



64 



64 



64 



64 



64 



64 



64 



64 



Means : 


51.39 


48.58 


49.83 


50.73 


S.D. 


9.63 


9.53 


9.56 


9.47 


S. D. M. 


1.204 


1.191 


1.195 


1.184 



43.72 45.83 53.66 56.83 
7.86 7.82 8.28 8.06 
.983 .978 1.035 1.008 



94 COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS 

TABLE XII 

Distribution of scores made by 256 selected 7B-grade pupils in the 
three tests which followed immediately each of four varied presentations 
of "The Southern States" on April 14, 1921. Original scores converted into 
T-Scores : 



Completion 
T-Score 


Study (C) 
Pupils 


Teacher (D) 
Pupils 


Film (A) 
Pupils 


Film-Lecture (B) 
Pupils 


27 










4 




1 






1 


33 




3 






4 




4 






1 


39 




13 






6 




5 






6 


45 




19 






15 




19 






11 


51 




7 






18 




15 






12 


56 




11 






8 




8 






13 


61 




6 






7 




6 






16 


68 




4 






1 




6 






3 


75 




1 
64 






1 
64 




64 






1 

64 


Means : 
S.D. 
S. D-M. 




49.17 
9.62 
1.203 




48.20 
9.90 
1.238 




49.94 
9.47 
1.184 




52.88 
9.10 
1.138 


Yes-No. 
T-Score 


S(C) 
Pupils 


T(D) 
Pupils 


F(A) 
Pupils 


FL (B) 
Pupils 


Drawing 
T-Score 


S(C) 
Pupils 


T(D) 
Pupils 


F(A) 
Pupils 


FL (B) 
; Pupils 


25 


2 






1 




23 


1 




1 




28 


1 











29 


1 


2 


1 


2 


31 





2 


3 


1 




33 


3 


3 





1 


33 


3 


1 










36 


3 


5 


1 


3 


36 


4 


5 


2 


1 




39 


8 


2 


2 


3 


39 


7 


5 


2 


2 




42 


5 


6 


5 


4 


41 


4 


6 


3 


2 




45 


5 


9 


10 


6 


44 


6 


7 


8 


3 




47 


8 


4 


7 


2 


47 


7 


5 


6 


7 




50 





5 


9 


7 


49 


7 


6 


9 


6 




52 


7 


10 


4 


12 


52 


4 


6 


8 


7 




55 


7 


5 


8 


6 


55 


4 


8 


9 


9 




58 


7 


6 


3 


6 


58 


7 


5 


7 


5 




62 


5 


2 


8 


3 


61 


3 


2 


5 


7 




65 


1 


4 


3 


7 


64 


3 


4 





6 




70 


1 


1 


1 


2 


67 


1 


1 





2 




74 


2 


. . 





. , 


69 











3 




79 




. , 


1 


. , 


71 








1 


2 






— 


— 


— 


— 


75 


1 
64 


1 
64 


1 
64 


64 






64 


64 


64 


64 


Means: 
S.D. 
S. D. M. 


47.58 
9.82 
1.228 


48.67 
9.48 
1.185 


50.14 
8.56 
1.07 


53.91 
8.74 
1.092 






48.91 
10.59 
1.324 


48.55 
9.37 
1.171 


51.05 
9.39 
1.174 


51.36 
9.55 
1.194 



SECTION VII— EXPERIMENT D 



95 



TABLE XIII 

Distribution of scores made by 256 selected 7B-grade pupils in the 
three tests Avhicli followed immediately each of four varied presentations of 
"Growth of Cities and Their Problems" on April 21, 1921. Original scores 
converted into T-Scores : 



Completion 


Study (B) 


Teacher (C) 


Film (D) 


Film-Lecture (A) 


T-Score 


Pupils 




Pupils 




Pupils 






Pupils 


25 




1 






1 











1 




33 




7 






3 




2 






4 




39 




10 






11 




5 






9 




45 




16 






14 




8 






10 




50 




13 






10 




7 






17 




54 




2 






13 




15 






11 




58 




9 






2 




8 






7 




63 




4 






5 




15 






5 




70 




2 






3 




4 










75 




, , 






1 










. , 




79 




64 






1 
64 




64 






64 




Means : 




47.47 




49.69 




54.22 




48.80 




S.D. 




9.63 




10.45 




8.95 






8.38 




S. D-M. 




1.204 






1.306 




1.119 






1.048 




Yes-No 


S(B) 


T(C) 


F(D) 


FL(A) 


Drawing 


S(C) 


T(C) 


F(D) 


FL(A) 


T-Score 


Pupils 


Pupils 


Pupils 


Pupils 




T-Score 


Pupils 


Pupils 


Pupils 


Pupils 


23 




1 




1 




27 


3 


1 


1 




1 


27 








1 




30 










1 


28 






i 


, , 




32 


2 


i 








30 


i 


"i 


2 






34 


5 




2 






34 


2 


1 


2 


5 




36 


1 


1 


2 




3 


37 


4 


4 


6 


4 




39 


5 


6 


3 




4 


41 


3 


4 


6 


3 




42 


1 


10 


6 




3 


44 


11 


4 


12 


7 




45 


8 


12 


5 




2 


48 


7 


11 


8 


8 




47 


6 


8 


6 




2 


51 


11 


9 


10 


10 




50 


10 


7 


5 




10 


55 


7 


9 


10 


13 




52 


6 


2 


7 




5 


59 


5 


9 


3 


3 




55 


3 





8 




10 


62 


7 


5 


3 


2 




57 


2 


2 


4 




7 


66 


3 


4 


1 


6 




59 


2 


6 


7 




5 


71 


2 


1 




1 




62 


3 


3 


4 




2 


77 


1 


1 








65 
68 


5 
1 


3 


4 




2 
3 




64 


64 


64 


64 




71 
73 

77 


1 
64 


i 

1 
64 


64 




3 

i 

64 


Means : 


51.27 


51.72 


47.27 


49.63 






48.27 


48.72 


50.72 


52.86 


S.D. 


9.54 


9.90 


8.36 


10.14 






10.55 


9.39 


8.65 


10.09 


S.D.M. 


1.193 


1.238 


1.045 


1.268 






1.319 


1.174 


1.081 


1.261 



The means of the various methods of presentation for the four weeks, 
averaged, are embodied iu the following summary, which also gives the 
differences between the means and the reliabilities of these differences. 



96 



COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS 



The differences, divided by the product of the reliabilities with 2.78, 
yield the experimental coefficients, -which, according to the table on page 42, 
indicate the probability of occurrence in terms of so many chances to one. 

SUMMARY TABLE 

Summary of composite averages by 256 selected 7B-grade pupils in the 
four weekly sets of tests which followed immediately the varied presenta- 
tions of the four successive lessons respectively. 



Completion 


Test Averages — 


















Film- 


Differ- 


S.D. 


Exp. 


Chances 


Study 


Teacher 


Film 


Lecture 


ence 


Diff. 


Coef. 


to One 


49.31 


48.04 






—1.27 


.858 


—.52 


13 


49.31 




51.04 




1.73 


.875 


.72 


45 


49.31 






51.80 


2.49 


.871 


1.04 


550 




48.04 


51.04 




3.00 


.843 


1.28 


6000 




48.04 




51.86 


3.76 


.8.38 


1.64 


Certainty 






51.04 


51.80 


.76 


.855 


.32 


4 


Yes-No Test Averages- 


— 












50.04 


50.33 






.29 


.843 


.12 


2 


50.04 




48.30 




—1.74 


.830 


—.76 


55 


50.04 






51.26 


1.16 


.821 


.48 


10 




50.33 


48.36 




—2.03 


.837 


—.88 


140 




50.33 




51.26 


.87 


.829 


.36 


5 






48.36 


51.20 


2.90 


.816 


1.28 


6000 


Drawing Test Averages 


;— 












48.31 


47.48 






—.83 


.778 


—.40 


6 


48.31 




51.67 




3.36 


.806 


1.48 


Certainty 


48.31 






54.65 


6.34 


.810 


2.84 


Certainty 




47.48 


51.67 




4.19 


.779 


1.96 


Certainty 




47.48 




54.65 


7.17 


.784 


3.28 


Certainty 






51.67 


54.65 


2.98 


.811 


1.32 


7500 



Among the foregoing completion test averages there are three differ- 
ences above practical certainty and one of considerable significance. The 
film presentations are evidently more effective than the verbal presenta- 
tions. 

In the Yes-No test averages the "Film Alone"' is decidedly below the 
verbal presentations. There are at least two reasons for the difference : in 
the first place, the film is probably less effective than the personality of the 
teacher, and in the second place, the test favors the verbal presentation. 
The most significant difference here is the one between the "Film-Lecture" 
and the "Film Alone." 

In the drawing test averages the differences are generally wide, which 
one would naturally expect. The really significant difference here is the 
one between the two film presentations. It indicates the value of intelligent 
direction of the pupil's attention by the teacher. 



SECTION VII— EXPERIMENT D 97 

As before, the averages of the three kinds of tests have been combined 
into single averages. These are given in the following summary, which also 
contains the averages of the experimental coefficients algebraically com- 
bined.* 

SUMMARY TABLE 

Summary of averaged averages made by 256 selected 7B-grade pupils 
after each of the four different methods of presentation. 









Film- 


Differ- 


Exp. 


Chances 


Study 


Teacher 


Film 


Lecture 


ence 


Coef. 


to One 


49.22 


48.62 




.... 


—.60 


—.27 


3 


49.22 


• . . . 


50.34 




1.12 


.48 


9 


49.22 






52.55 


3.33 


1.45 


Certainty 




48.62 


50.34 




1.72 


.79 


70 




48.62 




52.55 


3.93 


1.76 


Certainty 






50.34 


52.55 


2.21 


.97 


300 



The signiticant differences in the foregoing summary indicate a mani- 
fest superiority of the "Film-Lecture" over the other methods of pres- 
entation. 

Approximately tAvo months later a delayed test was given to the left- 
over participants of the experiment. This test embodied the four com- 
pletion tests from the questionnaires, the first week's drawing test, and half 
the number of tasks from each of the remaining three drawing tests. 

The reader will remember that the first week's drawing test called 
for a sketch of the mountain glacier. This was incorporated without any 
change in the abbreviated drawing test. From the second week's drawing 
test the following tasks were selected : Revolution of the earth around the 
sun and positions for seasons, 4 points ; earth and moon and the four 
changes, 4 points ; and day and night, 2 points — total 10. 

From the third week's drawing test the following tasks were picked: 
Sandy beach, 2 points; sugar cane plant, 2; cotton boll, 2; rice head, 2; 
banana cluster, 2— total 10. And from the fourth week's drawing test the 
following tasks were chosen : Muddy street with ruts, 2 points ; wooden 
tenement, 2 ; town pump, 2 ; portable school, 2 ; and playground apparatus, 2 
—total 10. 



♦The experimental coefficients thus obtained may be too high because in combining the 
scores of the three different tests of the same questiomiaire the reliabilities were computed 
according to a formula which neglected their interrelationships. But a few sample computa- 
tions revealed a distinct correlation of nearly .50. Hence the following formula should prob- 
ably have been used: 

S.D. _ ^ /(S.D.)^-f-(S.D.)2-H(S.D.)2-|-2r(S.D.)(S.D.)-h2r(S.D.)(S.D.)4-2r(S.D.)(S.D.) 
M ~ \ Ml M2 Ms 12 Ml M2 13 Mi Ms 23 M2 Ms 

Since the various sigmas are practically equal, a special formula may be derived for cor- 
recting the experimental coefficients by assuming a uniform correlation of .50: 



'■ M = J ^^^-^-^ ^^'^ yi ^^^-^-^ 



Dividing the above experimental coefficients by 1/2 manifestly makes this correction. 
We thus get —.19, .34, 1.03, .56, 1.24, and .69 in place of —.27, .48, etc. 



98 COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS 

A new set of T-Scores had to be worked out for the abbreviated draw- 
ing test, since it contained only half the number of tests found in the imme- 
diate drawing tests. 

The results from both the abbreviated drawing tests and the delayed 
completion tests, in terms of T-Scale units, are embodied in Tables, 13, 14, 
15, and 16, Appendix B. 

Following is a summary of the unselected results: 

SUMMARY TABLE 

Summary of composite averages by all 7B-grade pupils in the Com- 
pletion Test which was re-submitted approximately two months after the 
experiment. 



Study 


Teacher 


Film 


Film-Lecture 


Difference 


43.06 


42.28 






— .78 


43.06 




41.62 


.... 


—1.44 


43.06 






44.64 


1.58 




42.28 


4"l'.62 




— .66 




42.28 




44.64 


2.36 



Study 


Teacher 


48.68 


48.66 


48.68 




48.68 






48.66 




48.66 



Film-Lecture 


Difference 




— .02 




2.72 


51.0.3 


2.35 




2.74 


51.03 


2.37 


51.03 


— .37 



41.62 44.64 3.02 

Summary of composite averages by all 7B-grade pupils in the Abbre- 
viated Drawing Test which was submitted approximately two months after 
the experiment. 

Film 

51.40 
51.40 
51.40 

From the foregoing summary we see that in the completion test results 
the "Film Alone" average is loAver now than either "Study" or the 
"Teacher," which was not the case in the results from the first submission 
two months before. The "Film-Lecture" average, however, is still higher 
than any one of the other three. 

The abbreviated drawing test results have practically the same inter- 
relationships as the full dra^dng test results of two months before, except 
that the "Film Alone" average is slightly higher than the "Film-Lecture," 
which, however, has no significance. It seemed unnecessary to refine these 
results by selection for obvious reasons. 

In making the selection for the delayed completion test results, only 
forty-nine scores were available from each group. This gave a total of 
]96. These results, together with their means, standard deviations and 
reliabilities, are embodied in Table XIV. 



SECTION VII— EXPERIMENT D 



99 



TABLE XIV 

Distribution of scores made by 196 selected 7B-grade pupils in the 
Completion Test re-submitted approximately two months later. 
March 31— 



T- Score 


Study (A) 


Teacher (B) 


Film (C) 


Filra-L (D) 


26 


1 


1 


3 





33 


14 


14 


9 


6 


41 


12 


14 


18 


13 


48 


12 


10 


11 


17 


53 


8 


7 


5 


9 


58 


1 


2 


2 


2 


62 


1 


1 


1 


2 


• 


49 


49 


49 


49 


Means 


42.86 


42.67 


42.53 


46.20 


S.D. 


8.36 


8.45 


8.35 


7.35 


S.D.M. 


1.194 


1.208 


1.193 


1.050 


April 7— 










T-Score 


Study (D) 


Teacher (A) 


Film (B) 


Film-L (C) 


32 


5 


6 


7 


5 


41 


18 


23 


24 


16 


48 


16 


13 


15 


17 


53 


1 


5 


3 


6 


58 


8 


2 




1 


63 


1 






3 


71 








1 




49 


49 


49 


49 


Means : 


45.84 


43.67 


42.59 


46.29 


S.D. 


7.80 


6.50 


5.73 


8.30 


S. D.M. 


1.115 


.929 


.819 


1.185 


April 14— 










T-Score 


Study (C) 


Teacher (D) 


Film (A) 


Film-L (B) 


27 


2 


1 





1 


33 


8 


6 


7 


4 


39 


13 


17 


7 


15 


45 


16 


12 


14 


13 


51 


7 


10 


16 


13 


56 


3 


3 


4 


2 


61 




, , 





1 


68 






1 


•• 




49 


49 


49 


49 


Means : 


42.25 


42.98 


45.75 


44.18 


S.D. 


7.16 


6.89 


7.59 


6.96 


S. D.M. 


1.023 


.984 


1.084 


.994 


April 21— 










T-Score 


Study (B) 


Teacher (C) 


Film (D) 


Film-L (A) 


25 


6 


4 


2 


7 


33 


12 


12 


6 


9 


39 


17 


8 


5 


11 


45 


6 


18 


15 


9 


50 


6 


5 


16 


8. 


54 


1 


1 


5 


5 


58 


1 


1 








49 


49 


49 


49 


Means: 


38.59 


40.41 


44.65 


40.33 


S.D. 


7.93 


7.77 


7.34 


9.07 


S. D.M. 


1.132 


1.110 


1.050 


1.294 



100 



COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS 



In the summary which follows, the "Film-Lecture" is highest. In 
no way, however, is the superiority practically certain. The best probability 
is 120 chances to one. 

SUMMARY TABLE 

Summary of results by 196 selected IB-grade pupils in the Completion 
Test re-submitted approximately two months later. 









Film- 


Differ- 


S. D. 


Exp. 


Chances 


Study 


Teacher 


Film 


Lecture 


ence 


Difl. 


Coef. 


to One 


42.38 


42.43 






.05 


.773 


.00 


1 


42.38 




43.88 




1.50 


.765 


.72 


45 


42.38 


.... 




44.25 


1.87 


.798 


.84 


120 




42.43 


43.88 




1.45 


.745 


.72 


45 




42.43 




44.25 


1.82 


.778 


.84 


120 






43.88 


44.25 


.37 


.773 


.12 


2 



In giving the delayed tests, it happened that scores were obtained from 
247 7B-grade pupils who had missed one experimental unit or another or 
who had not at all participated. These scores, in terms of T-Scale units, are 
embodied in Table XV. 

TABLE XV 

Distribution of scores made by 247 7B-grade pupils who were not in the 

experiment but Avho were given the completion and drawing tests. Original 

steps converted into T-Scale units each of which represents one-tenth of a 

standard deviation from the mean of the experimental group. 

Completion — 

March 31 April 7 Aprill4 April 21 

T-Score Pupils T-Score Pupils T-Score Pupils T-Score Pupils 
27 7 32 12 27 9 

33 
39 
44 
49 
54 
59 



34 
41 
46 
51 
55 
59 



14 
16 
13 

7 





32 
40 
46 
51 
55 
59 
63 



12 
21 
3 
5 
3 

1 



17 

10 

18 

6 

1 

1 



26 
33 
39 
44 
48 
52 
56 



19 

24 

19 

11 

5 

3 

2 





n 57 




n 45 




n 62 




n 83 Total 247 




Means : 


39.93 




41.00 




38.60 




36.37 Av. 


38.98 


Drawing — 


















T-Score 


Pupils 


T-Score 


Pupils 


T-Score 


Pupils 


T-Score 


Pupils 




32 


16 


35 


15 


23 


3 


21 


3 




38 


7 


44 


13 


28 


3 


32 


7 




45 


10 


49 


6 


35 


13 


41 


16 




50 


10 


52 


4 


41 


7 


47 


18 




54 


11 


55 


4 


46 


14 


52 


18 




58 





58 


2 


52 


9 


56 


11 




62 


1 


61 





57 


5 


61 


5 




65 


1 


65 





63 


4 


65 


3 




68 


1 


68 





68 


3 


69 


2 




74 





72 


1 


72 
77 



1 









Means: 



n 57 
44.16 



n 45 
44.60 



n 62 
45.56 



n 83 Total 247 
47.94 Av. 



45.86 



SECTION VII— EXPERIMENT D 



101 



Combining the four weekly means under the completion test results in 
Table XV, the average is 38,98, Doing the same for the abbreviated draw- 
ing test, the average is 45,86. These two averages may be taken as the 
estimated initial knowledge and ability which the 7B-grade pupils very 
likely brought into the experiment. 

In the following summary we have the probable improvement from the 
estimated initial knowledge as measured by the immediate completion tests. 
This improvement is illustrated by Figure 8. It is unnecessary to explain 
the diagram, except to say that the curve represents the generalized dis- 
tribution of all the scores and the figures below indicate T-Scale units. 



SUMMARY TABLE 

Summary of the probable improvement from the assumed initial knowl- 
edge of the experimental group in the completion test which followed each 
of the four different methods of presentation. 



study 
49.43 



Teacher 



47.87 



Film 



50.81 





Initial 


Probable 


Film-Lecture 


Knowledge 


Improvement 




38.98 


10.55 


• • • • 


38.98 


8.89 


• • • • 


38.98 


11.83 


51.71 


38.98 


12.73 



Figure 8 illustrates this graphicallj'- 




!_nj.iI^rKKa^i|d^e '_ '.!". _■_'_".'.'.' "' {M#M^ 



Initial Knowledge 




8.89 
10.55 
11.83 
12.13 



inrturKnawTedi^- ---- Mmm^m^M 

Figure 8. Showing Probable Improvement in T-Scale units with each method of pre- 
sentation. Zero of knowledge not known. 

Following is a summary of the probable improvement as measured bj 
the completion tests when resubmitted approximately two months after the 
first submission. The various amounts of improvement are illustrated by 
Figure 9. 



102 



COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS 



SUMMARY TABLE 

Summary of the probable improvement from the assumed initial knowl- 
edge of the experimental group in the completion test which was resub- 
mitted approximately two months later. 



Study 
4306 



Teacher 



42.28 



Film 



41.62 



Film-Lecture 



44.64 



Initial 
Knowledge 

38.98 
38.98 
38.98 
38.98 



Probable 
Improvement"' 

4.08 
3.30 
2.64 
5.66 



Figure 9 illustrates this graphically. 






LnitJ-aJ Knowledg'e 


.. m^'- 








„ .l^^^l^J^^^'^^^'^'^ 2'® 


W/////\'- 








Initial Knowled-g-e 


WM' 










hiitlal iCn.owLed'g'e 


'imM: 



4.08 
5.66 

Figure 9. Showing Probable Improvement in T-Scale units with each method of pre- 
sentation. Zero of knowledge not known. 



Following is a summary of the probable improvement as measured by 
the abbreviated drawing test. The various amomits of improvement are 
illustrated by Figure 10. 

SUMMARY TABLE 

Summary of the probable improvement from the assumed initial knowl- 
edge of the experimental group in the abbreviated drawing test which was 
submitted approximately two months after the experiment. 



Study 
48.68 



Teacher 



48.66 



Film 



51.40 





Initial 


Probable 


Film-Lecture 


Knowledge 


Improvement 




45.86 


2.82 




45.86 


2.80 


• • . • 


45.86 


5.54 


51.03 


45.86 


5.17 



•Really left-over improvement. 



SECTION VII— EXPERIMENT D 



103 



Figure 10 illustrates this graphically. 




Initial Knov/led^e 


. _ . ..{ 




Initial Knowledge 




Initial K-nowiedge 

Initial Knowledge 





■ -oo ;; 



2.60 

2.52 
C5.17 

^.54 



Figure 10. Showing Probable Improvement in T-Scale units with each method of pre- 
sentation. Zero of knowledge not known. 



In Experiment A, a concealed test, calling for the choice to go on a 
trip to a certain countrj^ suggested by the presentation or to another country 
known as a strong counter-attraction, credited the illustrated lesson with 
a greater influence upon choice by three percent. 

Accordingly, to prove or disprove this alleged influence, similar tests 
were used in Experiment D. One of the tests was almost identical with the 
one previously used. Another one registered the choice of a library book. 
And a third recorded the choice of a composition topic. This last one was in 
reality a conduct test. 

The three tests appeared in each of the four questionnaires, making a 
total of twelve measures altogether. Eight of them were preferences and 
the remaining four actual decisions. 

The choices are embodied in Table XVI. 



104 



COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS 



TABLE XVI 



Distribution of 6,365 choices betAveen the lesson subject and various 
counter-attractions, made by the entire group of pupils after each of the 
four different presentations. 









Study 


Teacher 


] 


Pilm 


Film- 


-Lecture 








Les- 




Les- 




Les- 




Les- 










son 


Counter 


son 


Counter 


son 


Counter 


son 


Counter 








Sub- 


Attrac- 


Sub- 


Attrac- 


Sub- 


Attrac- 


Sub- 


Attrac- 








ject 


tion 


ject 


tion 


ject 


tion 


ject 


tion 


Choice 


March 31 


102 


35 


96 


39 


100 


48 


107 


39 


of 


April 


7 


140 


8 


133 


5 


132 


5 


144 


9 


Trip 


April 


14 


100 


51 


107 


36 


105 


28 


93 


39 




April 


21 


72 


23 


71 


32 


88 


24 


90 


13 








414 


117 


407 


112 


425 


105 


434 


100 


Library 


March 


31 


62 


66 


58 


75 


44 


102 


58 


80 


Booli 


April 


7 


114 


38 


102 


37 


91 


44 


102 


53 




April 


14 


82 


73 


98 


44 


100 


34 


99 


38 




April 


21 


74 


41 


75 


65 


85 


53 


84 


39 








332 


218 


333 


221 


320 


233 


343 


210 


Compo- 


March 31 


21 


115 


25 


114 


17 


132 


27 


124 


sition 


April 


7 


32 


118 


36 


82 


22 


80 


38 


108 




April 


14 


48 


107 


37 


90 


26 


74 


29 


77 




April 


21 


64 


35 


77 


52 


97 


31 


82 


24 








165 


375 


175 


338 


162 


317 


176 


333 


Total 






911 


710 


915 


671 


907 


655 


953 


643 










Study & Teacher Combined 


Film & Film- 


Lecture Combined 










Lesson 




Counter 




Lesson 


Counter 










Subject 


Attraction 




Subject 


Attraction 


All three choices . . . 




1826 




1381 




1860 


1298 


Composition Alone. . . 




340 




713 




338 




650 



In the following summary we have under "Study" 911 choices for 
going to the country or taking out the book or writing on the topic sug- 
gested by the lesson, and 710 choices for the various counter-attractions. 

Under "Film" we have 907 choices in favor of the subject suggested 
by the film and 655 for the counter-attractions. 

The mean proportional between these two ratios is 909/682. Compar- 
ing Hie "Film" influence with that of "Study," we see that the numerator 
is practically the same, but that the denominator has dropped over forty 
points. This favors the film by 2 percent. 

Under "Teacher" we have 915/571, while under "Film-Lecture" the 
numerator has risen to 933 and the denominator fallen to 643. This again 
credits the pictorial presentation with 2 percent more influence. 



SECTION VII— EXPERIMENT D 



105 



Combining now the two verbal presentations, "Study" with the 
"Teacher," and also the two film presentations, we get the following: 
Without film, 1826/1381 ; with film, 1860/1298, the numerator having risen 
34 points and denominator fallen 83. This is, of course, again a change of 
2 percent from the mean proportional. 

In the composition choices separately, we have 340/713 for the verbal 
presentations. With the pictorial presentations the numerator remains 
practically the same while the denominator has fallen 63 points. This is 
similarly an increase of 2 percent. 

Reducing the figures to simple ratios and taking the mean proportional 
as 100/100, with the use of the film, four pupils in two hundred will be 
influenced to make a choice which they would not have made with only the 
stimulus of a verbal appeal. 

Following is a summary of the choices : 

SUMMARY OF CHOICES 





Study 
Subject 
Choice 


Teacher 
Subject 
Choice 


Film Film-Lecture Mean 
Subject Subject Propor- 
Choice Choice tional 


Gain Eflfected 
by Use of Film 


All 

three 
Choices 


911 
710 


915 


907 
655 




953 


909 

682 
934 


2% 






671 






643 


657 


2% 






Without Film 


With FiUn 




Mean 
Proportional 


Gain 


All 

three 

Choices 




1826 
1381 




1860 
1298 




1843 
1340 


2% 


Composition 
Alone 




340 
713 




338 

650 




339 
682 


2% 


Reduced 
to Simple 
Ratios 




96 
100 




104 
100 




100 
100 


2% 



A word about the reliability of this increased influence. Considering 
the test in Experiment A as three chances and the tests in Experiment D as 
twelve more, we have in fifteen chances out of fifteen found an increased 
influence of two percent or higher. This probability may be absolute cer- 
tainty, no one knows. It sounds reliable. 

Another consideration. These concealed tests were absolutely free 
from any possible personal favoritism on the part of the experimenter, and 
for this reason they should be considered with the utmost open-mindedness. 

The results seem to throw light on a great question : Do our films 
influence perceptibly the conduct of the youth of the land ; and, if so, how 
much ? The reader may continue the thought. 



106 COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS 

The results of Experiment D may be summed up briefly : 

1. The averages of the "Film-Lecture" presentation are almost in- 
variably higher than any of the other three methods. This agrees with the 
findings in Experiments A, B, and C. It may be safe to assert now that, 
since we have statistical reliability in both A and B and fair probability in 
C and D, the value of the picture as an aid in teaching stands proved. 

2. When measuring the effectiveness of a pictorial presentation against 
a verbal presentation, the latter is obviously favored by a verbal test and 
the former by a pictorial. The proper thing to do is to use both types of 
tests and establish a correct balance between them. 

3. The subtitles of pictures can be made the basis for a middle-ground 
test in comparing the effectiveness of pictorial with verbal methods of 
presentation. 

4. Since in a verbal test the pictorial impressions must be translated 
into verbal imagery by the examinees, it is remarkable to find that the "Film 
Alone" is almost as effective as either "Study" or the "Teacher." 

5. A pictorial presentation, compared with a verbal presentation, has 
a manifestly greater influence upon choice by at least two percent. 



SECTION VIII— GENERAL CONCLUSIONS 107 

SECTION VIII. GENERAL CONCLUSIONS, 
HISTORY AND OUTLOOK 

Educators are agreed that visual experience of a vicarious nature has 
been made practical for the school room through the perfection of photog- 
raphy. This fact was accepted without proof preliminary to undertaking 
the foregoing investigation. 

The various phases of our investigation have yielded the following con- 
clusions : 

1. From the Study of Primary Sources we learn that in tracing back to 
their perceptual origins the countless elements of each of fifty common 
verbal concepts, two hundred out of five hundred credits fall into the visual 
column. Summarily stated, the results of the study attribute forty percent 
of our conceptual learning to visual experience, 

2. From Experiment A we learn: (a) when a correlated film is used 
as an aid, it increases the effectiveness of the lesson; (b) this increase is 
the result of greater ease of comprehension and a higher degree of satisfy- 
ingness; (c) since pictures provide vicarious experience, they should intro- 
duce a lesson when the subject matter is relatively foreign to the learners ; 
and (d) the preference for the film as a visual aid stands about 15 to 1 
among the pupils in the experimental group. Summarily stated, Experiment 
A proves the effectiveness of pictures as aids in the learning process. 

3. From Experiment B we learn: (a) in developing a composite visual 
image, pictorial presentation is more eft'ective than verbal; (b) this increase 
in learning is characterized by more memories, clearer ideas, better organ- 
ization, and less misinterpretation; and (c) verbal description, when aided 
by pictorial presentation, is the most effective method of the three. Sum- 
marily stated. Experiment B substantiates the effectiveness of a visual aid 
in the case of concrete learning. 

4. From Experiment C we learn: (a) in developing a relatively 
abstract concept, verbal description, aided by a diagrammatic representa- 
tion, is probably more effective than verbal description alone; (b) it seems 
that if the diagram is more abstract than the verbal description, it should lag 
in the presentation ; and (c) on the other hand, if the diagram is simpler than 
the verbal description, it may well appear in the beginning of the presenta- 
tion. Summarily stated, Experiment C tends to substantiate the effective- 
ness of a visual aid in the case of more abstract learning. 



108 COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS 

5. From Experiment D we learu: (a) the averages of the "Film- 
Lecture" presentation are almost invariably higher than any of the other 
three methods; (b) when measuring the effectiveness of a pictorial presenta- 
tion against a verbal presentation, both verbal and pictorial tests should be 
used; (c) the subtitles of pictures can be made the basis for a middle-ground 
test in comparing the effectiveness of verbal pictorial methods; (d) since in 
a verbal test the pictorial impressions must be translated into verbal 
imagery by the examinees, it is remarkable to find that the "Film Alone" 
is almost as effective as either "Study" or the "Teacher"; and (e) a pic- 
torial presentation, compared with a verbal presentation, has a manifestly 
greater influence upon choice by at least two percent. Summarily stated, 
Experiment D tends to establish the validity of combining words with pic- 
tures in teaching. 



In the following historical sketch no attempt will be made to mention 
anything except experimental studies of the problems of visual aids, and 
these only very briefly : 

Children's Perceptions, by W. H. Winch, an English investigator, may 
arbitrarily be chosen as the connecting link between sporadic experimental 
efforts and the more serious attempts to measure the effectiveness of visual 
aids. His investigation was made with the well-known "Breakfast" picture, 
previously used by German psychologists. The study falls short in that 
no comparisons were sought between different methods of presentation. 
However, as a pioneer study, the book is rich in suggestions. 

Roy L. Davis, in his doctor's thesis at New York University, applied 
Winch's method to a moving picture film. I am unable to discuss the results 
here because the study is not yet in print, to my knowledge, and hence not 
generally available. 

Dr. D. R. Sumstine, of Pittsburgh, reported an experimental study in 
School and Society, for February, 1918. It was entitled. Comparative Study 
of Visual Instruction in the High School. Three methods of presentation 
were compared : film, film-lecture, and lecture. The results were : 



Period 


Film 


Film-Lecture 


Lecture 


24 hours 


73.9 


70.8 


67.8 


10 days 


60.2 


56.5 


51.5 


3 months 


72.8 


60.2 


61.1 



These results differ from mine in that the film-lecture method ranks 
lower in effectiveness than visual alone. I can not explain this lack of 
agreement since I neither know the number of pupil cases nor the possible 
interference of the lecturer with the showing of the subtitles. 



SECTION VIII— GENERAL CONCLUSIONS 109 

Probably the most reliable attempt at measuring the effectiveness of 
different methods was reported by John V. Lacy in the November, 1919, 
number of Teachers College Record. It is entitled, The Relative Value 
of Motion Pictures as an Educational Agency — An Experimental Study. 
The purpose of the study was to determine the pedagogical and moral 
value of motion pictures. The film chosen was "The Hoosier Schoolmaster." 
Three mutually exclusive methods were employed : oral presentation, silent 
reading by the pupils, and presentation with moving pictures. The effec- 
tiveness was measured with yes-no questions of fact, inference, and moral 
discrimination. And the results were : 

Immediate test Delayed test 

Oral presentation over movie 9 points 4.5 points 

Silent perusal over movie 7 points 1.0 points 

Oral over silent perusal 2 points 3.5 points 

Choice of learning rest of story: oral presentation, .5; silent reading 
by pupils, 5.0; moving pictures, 91. (Most of these figures are only approxi- 
mate.) The reader will note that the relative positions of the three methods 
agree with my yes-no results in E.xperiment D, 



And now the outlook. Nearly eighteen months of intensive research in 
visual instruction have left their influence upon me in the form of a con- 
glomerate of intuitions with respect to the future of visual aids in the 
schoolroom, and some of these intutitions are herewith given forth in a 
prophecy that may be entertaining, if not actually instructive. 

The most promising soil for the growth of visual instruction is un- 
doubtedly the elementary school ; and the most important function of visual 
aids is that of being a passive source of information, satisfaction, and in- 
spiration in the solution of problems and the execution of pupil projects. 

Since visual aids provide vicarious experience, their value increases 
with lack of experience on the part of the learners. Consequently, the more 
limited a child's training is, the greater may be the potential effectiveness 
of the picture or other aid. 

But one caution must be reiterated. Viewing a picture does not neces- 
sarily effect learning. Seeing is merely a fraction of the learning process. 
Learning is the effect of thinking, feeling, doing — in brief, cerebration. So, 
unless the visual impression is seized upon vigorously by discussion, ques- 
tioning, and pupil expression, it has much less value than is commonly be- 
lieved. 

Therefore, the biggest task in the field of visual instruction now is the 
actual elaboration of a specific methodology. Every subject in the elemen- 



no COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS 

tary curriculum, and every fundamental element that can be elucidated with 
either a visual scene or a visualized scheme, will have to be correlated with 
one or more visual aids. And every teacher will have to know how to se- 
cure, systematize, and utilize most economically the various aids and be an 
expert in guiding the pupils in their most effective use. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Betts, G. H. The Distribution and Functions of Mental Imagery. Teachers 
College, Columbia University, Contributions to Education, No. 26. 
(Relevant to the Study of the Primary Sources of Knowledge). 

Lacy, J. V. The Relative Value of Motion Pictures as an Educational 
■ Agency — An Experimental Study. Teachers College Record, Novem- 
ber, 1919. (Relevant to Experiment D). 

McCall, Wm. A. How to Measure in Education. Macmillan, 1922. (Rele- 
vant to experimental coefficients and chances to one). 

McCall, Wm. A. A Uniform Method of Scale Construction. Teachers Col- 
lege Record, January, 1921. (Relevant to T-Scale units). 

Sumstine, D. R. Comparative Study of Visual Instruction in the High- 
School. School and Society, 7 :235-38, February, 1918. 

Thorndike, E. L. An Introduction to the Theory of Mental and Social 
Measurements (Revised). New York, 1913. (Relevant to the statis- 
tical manipulation of experimental results). 

Yule, G. Udny. An Introduction to the Theory of Statistics. London, 
1919. (Relevant to reliability formulae). 



APPENDIX A 



111 



APPENDIX A 

TABLE 1 

Distribution of scores made by 482 7A-grade pupils in a 60-question 
test, called Test B, which followed a lesson on China, February 23, 1921. 
Original steps converted into T-Scale units, each of which represents one- 
tenth of a standard deviation from the mean of the group. 





Group : C 


Score 


L-F 


- 


1 


1- 2 





3- 4 


2 


5- 6 


2 


7- 8 


4 


9-10 


7 


11-12 


5 


13-14 


6 


15-16 


10 


17-18 


4 


19-20 


9 


21-22 


10 


23-24 


16 


25-26 


9 


27-28 


12 


29-30 


19 


31-32 


10 


33-34 


5 


35-36 


10 


37-38 


9 


39-40 


6 


41-42 


3 


43-44 


1 


45-46 


1 


47-48 




49-50 




51-52 




53-54 




55-56 




57-58 




59-60 





F-L 



1 

1 

5 



4 

6 

10 

9 

15 

12 

16 

10 

11 

12 

12 

7 

13 

•4 

5 

2 

2 

1 



L-F 



2 

1 



3 

1 

6 

7 

7 

9 

8 

9 

10 

15 

10 

12 

15 

11 

5 

3 

9 

4 

9 

3 

3 

1 



'otal 


Per cent 

exceeding 

plus half those 

reaching : 


T-Sco 


1 



99.90 


19 


4 
3 


99.38 
98.65 


25 
28 


4 
11 


97.93 
96.37 


30 
32 


7 
17 


94.50 
92.01 


34 
36 


17 
15 


88.49 
85.17 


38 
40 


24 

28 


81.12 
75.73 


41 
43 


34 
34 


69.29 
62.24 


45 

47 


39 
45 


54.67 
45.95 


49 
51 


32 
31 


37.97 
31.43 


53 
55 


33 
26 


24.79 
18.67 


57 
59 


16 
25 


14.32 
10.06 


61 
63 


9 
15 


6.54 
4.05 


65 

68 


5 
5 


1.97 
.93 


71 
74 


2 


.21 


79 



Means: 



161 



46.51 



158 



52.77 



163 
51.06 



482 



112 



COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS 



TABLE 2 

Distribution of scores made by 486 7A-grade pupils in a 60-question 
test, called Test C, which followed a lesson on Japan, March 2, 1921, 
Original steps converted into T-Scale units, each of which represents one- 
tenth of a standard deviation from the mean of the group. 



Score 


Group : B 
L-R 


C 
F-L 


A 

L-F 


Total 


Per cent 

exceeding 

plus half those 

reaching : 


T-Sco 


- 
1- 2 


1 
1 






1 
1 


99.90 
99.69 


19 
23 


3- 4 
5- 6 


2 



1 




2 
1 


99,38 
99.07 


25 
27 


7- 8 
9-10 


5 
4 



1 




5 
6 


98.46 
97.43 


29 
31 


11-12 
13-14 


4 
5 


1 



1 



6 
5 


96.30 
95.16 


32 
33 


15-16 
17-18 


6 
6 


1 
3 


1 
1 


8 
10 


93.83 
91.98 


35 
36 


19-20 
21-22 


9 

8 



3 


3 
4 


12 
15 


89.71 
86.93 


37 
39 


23-24 
25-26 


7 
12 


1 
3 


4 
6 


12 
21 


84.16 
80.76 


40 
41 


27-28 
29-30 


5 
13 


3 

8 


4 
9 


12 
30 


77.37 
73.05 


42 
44 


31-32 
33-34 


14 
6 


2 
16 


9 
13 


25 
35 


67.39 
61.21 


45 
47 


35-36 
37-38 


8 

8 


17 
17 


6 
19 


31 
44 


54.42 
46.71 


49 
51 


39-40 
41-42 


10 
12 


17 
15 


16 
12 


43 
39 


37.76 
29.32 


53 
55 


43-44 
45-46 


4 
3 


17 
13 


18 
13 


39 
29 


21.30 
14.30 


58 
61 


47-48 
49-50 



2 


18 
4 


9 
5 


27 
11 


8.54 
4.63 


64 
67 


51-52 
53-54 


2 
1 


4 



4 
3 


10 
4 


2.47 
1.03 


70 
73 


55-56 

57-58 


1 
1 


1 




2 

1 


.41 
.10 


76 
81 


59-60 
















160 


166 


160 


486 






Means : 


44.38 


53.10 


52.34 









APPENDIX A 



113 



TABLE 3 



Distribution of scores made by 499 7A-grade pupils in a 40-question 
test, Test X, which followed a lesson on India, February 16, 1921. Also 
scores by 417 of these 7A-grade pupils in the same 40-question test resub- 
mitted approximately fifteen weeks later. Original steps converted into 
T-Scale units, each of which represents one-tenth of a standard deviation 
from the means of the group. 



24-Hour Result- 
Group : A 

Score L-R 


B 
F-L 


C 
L-F 


Total 


Per cent ex- 
ceeding plus 
half those 
reaching : 


Delayed 
Group : 

T-Score 


A 

L-R 


B 
F-L 


C 
L-F 


Total 


- 
1- 2 


5 

5 


4 
4 


5 
3 


14 
12 


96.60 
95.99 


32 
33 


18 
14 


8 
4 


18 

7 


44 

25 


3- 4 
5- 6 


4 
11 


6 
10 


5 

7 


15 
28 


93.29 

88.98 


35 

38 


7 
16 


12 
14 


8 
14 


27 
44 


7- 8 
9-10 


14 

8 


6 
5 


13 
15 


33 

28 


82.87 
76.75 


41 
43 


26 
15 


14 
15 


17 
12 


57 
42 


11-12 
13-14 


16 
19 


12 
16 


30 
11 


58 
46 


68.14 

57.72 


45 
48 


12 
13 


15 
12 


16 
15 


43 
40 


15-16 
17-18 


16 
21 


17 
15 


22 
16 


55 
52 


47.60 
36.87 


51 

53 


8 
7 


13 
10 


12 
6 


33 
23 


19-20 
21-22 


12 
13 


19 
13 


11 
6 


42 
32 


27.45 
20.04 


56 
58 


2 
1 


10 

4 


6 
1 


18 
6 


23-24 
25-26 


8 
8 


12 
13 


8 
8 


28 
29 


14.03 
8.32 


61 
64 


1 


5 
2 


4 
1 


10 
3 


27-28 
29-30 


2 
1 


4 
4 


3 
3 


9 

8 


4.51 
2.81 


67 
69 




2 




2 


31-32 
33-34 




5 
. 1 


2 



7 
1 


1.30 
.50 


72 
76 










35-36 
37-38 




1 




1 


1 

1 


.30 
.10 


78 
81 










39-40 
























163 


167 


169 


499 






140 


140 


137 


417 



Means: 



49.02 52.22 49.25 



41.26 45.44 43.10 



114 



COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS 



TABLE 4 

Distribution of scores made by 482 7A-grade pupils in a 40-question 
test, Test Y, which followed a lesson on China, February 23, 1921. Also 
scores by 406 of these 7A-grade pupils in the same 40-question test resub- 
mitted approximately fourteen weeks later. Original steps converted into 
T-Scale units, each of which represents one-tenth of a standard deviation 
from the mean of the group. 



24-Hour Result- 








Per cent ex- 


Delayed 










Group : 


C 


A 


B 




ceeding plus 


Group : 


C 


A 


B 
















half those 












Score 


L-R 


F-L 


L-F 


Total 


reaching : 


T -Score 


L-R 


F-L 


L-F 


Tota 











1 


1 


99.90 


19 


11 


2 


7 


20 


1- 


■ 2 


3 







3 


99.48 


24 


7 


2 


4 


13 


3- 


' 4 


2 


2 


1 


5 


98.65 


28 


9 


5 


7 


21 


5- 


6 


3 


1 


2 


6 


97.51 


30 


7 


4 


9 


20 


7- 


■ 8 


8 


1 


6 


15 


95.33 


33 


20 


12 


12 


44 


9- 


■10 


6 


2 


3 


11 


92.63 


36 


16 


14 


17 


47 


11- 


■12 


14 


6 


8 


28 


89.59 


38 


14 


19 


17 


50 


13- 


■14 


12 


5 


13 


30 


82.59 


41 


14 


16 


21 


51 


15- 


■16 


15 


13 


23 


51 


74.17 


44 


12 


16 


8 


36 


17- 


■18 


20 


11 


14 


45 


64.21 


46 


11 


15 


14 


40 


19-20 


16 


22 


10 


48 


54.56 


49 


4 


9 


12 


25 


21- 


•22 


23 


22 


19 


64 


42.95 


52 


3 


13 


5 


21 


23- 


•24 


11 


15 


18 


44 


31.74 


55 


4 


4 


1 


9 


25- 


-26 


13 


15 


12 


40 


23.03 


57 


1 


1 


2 


4 


27-28 


4 


16 


12 


32 


15.56 


60 







2 


2 


29- 


•30 


8 


10 


9 


27 


9.44 


63 




1 


1 


2 


31- 


•32 


3 


10 


6 


19 


4.67 


67 












33- 


-34 




4 


5 


9 


1.76 


71 




1 






35- 


■36 




3 


1 


4 


.41 


76 










37- 


-38 






















39- 


-40 























161 



158 163 



482 



133 



134 



139 



406 



Means: 



47.04 53.01 50.17 



36.42 41.39 38.89 



APrENDIX A 



115 



TABLE 5 

Distribution of scores made by 486 7A-grade pupils in a 40-question 
test, Test Z, -vvhieh followed a lesson on Japan, March 2, 1921. Also scores 
by 410 of these 7A-grade pupils in the same 40-question test resubmitted 
approximately thirteen Aveeks later. Original steps converted into T-Scale 
units, each of which represents one-tenth of a standard deviation from the 
mean of the group. 



24-Hour Result- 








Per cent ex- 


Delayed 










Group : 


B 


C 


A 




ceeding plus 


Group : 


B 


C 


A 
















half those 












Score 


L-R 


F-L 


L-F 


Total 


reaching : 


T-Score 


L-R 


F-L 


L-F 


Tota 




- 


3 






3 


99.69 


23 


6 


1 


1 


8 


1- 


- 2 


1 






2 


99.18 


26 


7 





5 


12 


3- 


- 4 


4 






5 


98.46 


28 


6 


4 


8 


18 


5- 


- 6 


7 






7 


97.22 


31 


15 


2 


3 


20 


7- 


- 8 


4 




1 


6 


95.88 


33 


12 


7 


8 


27 


9- 


-10 


8 




2 


11 


94.14 


34 


21 


5 


13 


39 


Il- 


-12 


13 




5 


20 


90.95 


37 


18 


10 


13 


41 


ls- 


■14 


11 




4 


16 


87.24 


39 


15 


14 


10 


39 


15- 


-16 


8 




3 


15 


84.05 


40 


7 


13 


15 


35 


17- 


-18 


13 


2 


5 


20 


80.45 


41 


9 


20 


15 


44 


19- 


-20 


18 


3 


9 


30 


75.31 


43 


7 


17 


15 


39 


21- 


-22 


11 


4 


10 


25 


69.65 


45 


5 


11 


10 


26 


23- 


■24 


10 


10 


12 


32 


63.79 


46 


3 


11 


8 


22 


25- 


-26 


11 


19 


20 


50 


55.35 


49 


2 


10 





12 


27- 


-28 


14 


23 


17 


54 


44.65 


51 


2 


5 


3 


10 


29- 


-30 


6 


23 


19 


48 


34.16 


54 





3 


6 


9 


31- 


•32 


8 


28 


20 


56 


23.46 


57 


1 


3 





4 


33- 


-34 


6 


28 


18 


52 


12.35 


62 




2 


1 


3 


35- 


■36 


3 


12 


9 


24 


4.53 


67 




1 


1 


2 


37- 


•38 


1 





3 


4 


1.65 


71 










39- 


•40 




3 


3 


6 















160 166 160 486 



136 139 



135 



410 



Means : 



43.73 53.93 52.04 



35.91 42.12 39.49 



116 



COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS 



APPENDIX B 



TABLE 1 



Distribution of scores made by 585 7B-grade pupils in a 40-question 
test, which followed immediately each of four varied presentations of "The 
Study of a Mountain Glacier" on March 31, 1921. Original steps converted 
into T-Scale units, each of which represents one-tenth of a standard devia- 
tion from the mean of the group. 

















Per cent ex- 






Group: 


A 


B 


C 


D 




ceeding plus 
half those 




Score 


S-P 


T-P 


F-P 


FL-P 


Total 


reaching : 


T- Score 


-17-16 


1 








1 


99.92 


19 


■15- 


-14 


















-13- 


-12 


1 




2 




3 


99.57 


24 


-11- 


-10 





1 


4 




5 


98.89 


27 


- 9- 


- 8 


4 


3 


5 


1 


13 


97.35 


31 


- 7- 


• 6 


7 


1 


4 


1 


13 


95.13 


33 


- 5- 


■ 4 


4 


4 


10 


3 


21 


92.22 


36 


■ 3- 


• 2 


9 


4 


8 


2 


23 


88.46 


38- 


■ 1- 


- 0.0 


14 


9 


13 


14 


50 


82.22 


41 


1- 


- 2 


17 


10 


/12 


11 


50 


73.68 


44 


3- 


- 4 


13 


12 


15 


16 


56 


64.62 


46 


5- 


■ 6 


19 


10 


13 


24 


66 


54.19 


49 


7- 


■ 8 


13 


15 


14 


16 


58 


43.59 


52 


9- 


•10 


11 


13 


12 


12 


48 


34.53 


54 


11- 


•12 


9 


12 


9 


15 


45 


26.58 


56 


13- 


■14 


6 


13 


10 


16 


45 


18.89 


59 


15- 


■16 


6 


6 


9 


7 


28 


12.65 


61 


17- 


•18 


3 


8 


4 


4 


19 


8.63 


64 


19- 


•20 


3 


5 


2 


3 


13 


5.90 


66 


21- 


•22 


1 


5 


4 


4 


14 


3.59 


68 


23- 


24 




2 


1 


1 


4 


2.05 


70 


25- 


•26 




3 







3 


1.45 


72 


27-28 




1 




2 


3 


.94 


74 


29- 


■30 




3 







3 


.43 


76 


31- 


•32 


















33- 


•34 








1 


1 


.09 


81 


35- 


•36 
















37-38 
















39- 


40 

















585 



APPENDIX B 



117 



TABLE 2 

Distribution of scores made by 589 7B-grade pupils in a 40-question test 
which followed immediately each of four varied presentations of ' ' The Earth 
and Worlds Beyond"' on April 7, 1921. Original steps converted into 
T-Scale units, each of which represents one-tenth of a standard deviation 
from the mean of the group. 



•Group: 
Score 


D 
S-P 


A 
T-P 


B 
F-P 


C 
FL-P 


Total 


Per cent ex- 
ceeding plus 
half those 
reachiDg : 


T-Score 


-13-12 
-11-10 


1 


1 
2 






1 
3 


99.92 
99.58 


19 
24 


- 9- 8 

■ 7- 6 



2 


1 

1 


1 

1 


1 
4 


3 

8 


99.07 
98.13 


26 
29 


- 5- 4 
■ 3- 2 


2 
2 


4 
10 


3 

7 


1 
5 


10 
24 


99.60 
93.72 


32 
35 


- 1- 0.0 

- 1- 2 


4 
9 


12 
10 


7 
11 


7 
11 


30 
40 


89.13 
83.19 


38 
40 


3- 4 
5- 6 


15 

17 


19 
22 


19 
10 


20 
15 


73 
64 


73.60 
61.97 


44 
47 


7- 8 
9-10 


18 
15 


21 
11 


18 
12 


25 
19 


82 
57 


49.58 
37.78 


50 
53 


11-12 
13-14 


19 
11 


9 

7 


18 
19 


13 
15 


59 
53 


27.93 
18.42 


56 
59 


15-16 
17-18 


10 

7 


5 
3 


3 
5 


1 
3 


19 

18 


12.31 
9.17 


62 
63 


19-20 
21-22 


6 
4 


3 


2 

1 


7 
6 


18 
11 


6.11 
3.65 


65 
68 


23-24 
25-26 


3 
2 




1 


2 

1 


6 
3 


2.21 
1.44 


70 

72 


27-28 
29-30 


2 
2 






2 


4 
2 


.85 
.34 


74 
77 


31-32 
33-34 




1 










1 


.09 


81 


35-36 
37-38 
















39-40 

















598 



118 



COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS 



TABLE 3 

Distribution of scores made by 576 7B-grade pupils in a 40-question test 
which followed immediately each of four varied presentations of "The 
Southern States" on April 14, 1921. Original steps converted into T-Scale 
units, each of which represents one-tenth of a standard deviation from the 
mean of the group. 

















Per cent ex- 






Group : 


C 


D 


A 


B 




ceeding plus 
half those 




Score 


S-P 


T-P 


F-P 


FL-P 


Total 


reaching : 


T-Score 


-3- 


- 2 


2 




1 


1 


4 


99.65 


23 


-1- 


- 0.0 


1 










1 


99.22 


26 


1- 


■ 2 


2 


3 


5 


1 


11 


98.18 


29 


3- 


■ 4 


5 


3 


4 





12 


96.18 


32 


5- 


■ 6 


8 


8 


4 


1 


21 


93.32 


35 


7- 


■ 8 


9 


7 


7 


4 


27 


89.15 


38 


9- 


■10 


14 


10 


8 


6 


38 


83.51 


40 


11- 


■12 


14 


14 


14 


8 


50 


75.87 


43 


IS- 


-14 


13 


11 


13 


14 


51 


67.10 


46 


IS- 


•16 


14 


14 


22 


13 


63 


57.21 


48 


17- 


■18 


12 


14 


19 


15 


60 


46.53 


51 


19- 


■20 


9 


16 


17 


14 


56 


36.46 


53 


21- 


■22 


19 


14 


7 


15 


55 


26.82 


56 


23- 


■24 


8 


13 


10 


18 


49 


17.80 


59 


25- 


■26 


14 


9 


3 


10 


36 


10.42 


63 


27- 


■28 


3 


3 


2 


8 


16 


5.90 


66 


29- 


■30 


5 


1 


1 


5 


12 


3.47 


68 


31- 


-32 


2 


1 


1 


2 


6 


1.91 


71 


33- 


■34 


2 


2 


1 


1 


6 


.87 


74 


35- 


■36 




1 




1 


2 


.17 


79 


37- 


■38 
















39- 


■40 

















576 



APPENDIX B 



119 



TABLE 4 

Distribution of scores made by 541 7B-grade pupils in a 40-question test 
which followed immediately each of four varied presentations of "The 
Growth of Cities and Their Problems" on April 21, 1921. Original steps 
converted into T-Scale units, each of which represents one-tenth of a stan- 
dard deviation from the mean of the group. 



Group : 
Score 


B 

S-P 


C 
T-P 


D 
F-P 


A 
FL-P 


Total 


Per cent ex- 
ceeding plus 
half those 
reaching : 


T -Score 


- 
1- 2 




1 







1 



99.91 


19 


3- 4 
5- 6 




1 
1 


1 



1 



3 
1 


99.54 
99.17 


24 
26 • 


7- 8 
9-10 








1 



2 

1 


3 

1 


98.80 
98.43 


27 
28 


11-12 
13-14 


3 
2 


1 
1 


1 
2 



2 


5 

7 


97.87 
96.77 


30 
32 


15-16 
17-18 


5 
5 


3 
9 


4 

8 


7 
13 


19 
35 


94.36 
89.37 


34 
38 


19-20 
21-22 


8 
19 


7 
6 


6 
17 


8 
21 


29 
63 


83.46 
74.95 


40 
43 


23-24 
25-26 


13 
19 


21 
17 


18 
20 


16 
20 


68 
76 


62.85 
49.54 


47 
50 


27-28 
29-30 


14 
9 


15 
22 


17 
19 


21 

7 


67 
57 


36.32 
24.86 


53 
57 


31-32 
33-34 


12 
8 


19 
13 


10 

8 


3 

7 


44 
36 


15.53 
8.13 


60 
64 


35-36 

37-38 


7 
3 


7 
2 


6 


1 


21 
5 


2.87 
.46 


69 
76 


39-40 

















541 



120 



COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS 



TABLE 5 

Distribution of scores made by 588 7B-grade pupils in a 10-point com- 
pletion test and a 20-point recall drawing test which followed immediately 
each of four varied presentations of "The Study of a Mountain Glacier" 
on March 31, 1921. Original steps converted into T-Scale units, each of 
which represents one-tenth of a standard deviation from the mean of the 
group. 



Group : 
Completion 
Score 


A 
S-P 


B 
T-P 


c 

F-P 


D 
FL-P 


Total 


Per cent ex- 
ceeding plus 
half those 
reaching : 


T-Score 




1 


10 
14 


1 
16 


4 


1 
5 


12 
39 


98.98 
94.64 


27 
34 


2 
3 


34 
32 


27 
32 


26 
27 


16 
20 


103 
111 


82.57 
64.37 


41 
46 


4 
5 


23 
15 


30 
21 


29 
19 


27 
23 


109 
78 


45.66 
29.76 


51 
55 


6 

7 


10 
2 


10 
1 


21 
13 


26 
18 


67 
34 


17.43 
8.84 


59 
64 


8 
9 


1 


2 


8 
5 


12 
3 


23 

8 


4.00 
1.36 


68 

72 


10 






2 


2 


4 

588 


.34 


77 


Drawing 
Score 


S-P 


T-P 


F-P 


FL-P 


Total 


Per cent 


T- Score 



1 


18 
49 


21 
42 


12 
10 


6 
1 


57 
102 


95.15 
81.63 


33 
41 


2 
3 


40 
12 


25 
11 


14 
17 


4 
9 


83 
49 


65.90 
54.68 


46 
49 


4 
6 


15 
2 


9 

7 


29 

8 


17 
18 


70 
35 


44.56 
35.63 


51 
54 


6 

7 


5 


15 
3 


29 

7 


30 
5 


79 
15 


25.94 
17.94 


56 
59 


8 
9 




4 



16 
3 


34 

7 


54 
10 


12.07 
6.63 


62 
65 


10 
11 




2 




6 
1 


13 
3 


21 
4 


4.00 
1.87 


68 
71 


12 
13 




1 


1 



3 

1 


5 
1 


1.11 
.60 


73 
75 


14 
15 










1 



1 



.43 


76 


16 

17 










1 


1 



.26 


78 


18 
19 
20 






1 




1 


.09 


81 



688 



APPEND.IX B 



121 



TABLE 6 

Distribution of scores made by 589 7B-grade pupils in a 10-point com- 
pletion test and a 20-point free recall drawing test which followed imme- 
diately each of four varied presentations of "'The Earth and Worlds 
Beyond" on April 7, 1921. Original steps converted into T-Scale units, each 
of which represents one-tenth of a standard deviation from the mean of the 
group.. 















Per cent ex- 




Group : 


D 


A 


B 


C 




ceeding plus 




Completion 












half those 




Score 


S-P 


T-P 


F-P 


FL-P 


Total 


reaching : 


T-Sc( 





5 


16 


10 


11 


42 


96.43 


32 


1 


17 


48 


23 


18 


106 


83.87 


40 


2 


16 


39 


42 


20 


117 


64.94 


46 


3 


29 


19 


24 


30 


102 


46.35 


51 


4 


29 


11 


25 


24 


89 


30.14 


55 


5 


25 


6 


7 


14 


52 


18.17 


59 


6 


20 


2 


5 


14 


41 


10.27 


63 


7 


6 




2 


15 


23 


4.84 


67 


8 


5 




J. 


10 


16 


1.53 


72 


9 








1 


1 


.08 


82 


10 

















589 



►rawing 

Score 


S-P 


T-P 


F-P 


FL-P 


Total 


Per cent 


T-Score 





35 


26 


7 


2 


70 


94.06 


34 


1 


18 


41 


12 


5 


76 


81.66 


41 


2 


24 


26 


15 


4 


69 


69.35 


45 


3 


11 


11 


11 


10 


43 


59.85 


48 


4 


15 


14 


22 


12 


63 


50.85 


50 


5 


11 


7 


15 


19 


52 


41.09 


52 


6 


12 


7 


9 


12 


40 


33.28 


54 


7 


9 


4 


12 


12 


37 


26.74 


56 


8 


5 


2 


9 


11 


27 


21.31 


58 


9 


2 


2 


5 


11 


20 


17.32 


59 


10 


3 





5 


12 


20 


13.92 


61 


11 


1 





8 


9 


18 


10.70 


62 


12 


2 





2 


8 


12 


8.15 


64 


13 








2 


4 


6 


6.62 


65 


14 


2 





2 


5 


9 


5.35 


66 


15 








1 


6 


7 


3.99 


68 


16 








2 


4 


6 


2.89 


69 


17 


2 


1 




5 


8 


1.70 


71 


18 








3 


3 


.76 


74 


19 








1 


1 


.42 


76 


20 








2 


2 


.17 


7S 



689 



122 



COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS 



TABLE 7 

Distribution of scores made by 573 7B-gTade pupils in a 10-point com- 
pletion test and a 20-point free recall drawing test which followed imme- 
diately each of four varied presentations of "The Southern States" on April 
14, 1921. Original steps converted into T-Scale units, each of which rep- 
resents one-tenth of a standard deviation from the mean of the group. 



Group : 
Completion 
Score 


C 

S-P 


D 
T-P 


A 

F-P 


B 
FL-P 


Total 


Per cent ex- 
ceeding plus 
half those 
reaching : 


T -Score 



1 


1 
10 


6 
5 


6 
10 


1 
2 


14 

27 


98.78 
95.20 


27 
33 


2 
3 


22 
31 


12 
24 


17 
32 


12 
19 


63 
106 


87.35 
72.60 


39 
44 


4 
5 


25 

22 


34 

26 


34 
19 


32 
30 


125 
97 


52.44 
33.07 


49 

54 


6 

7 


16 
16 


23 
9 


8 
9 


26 
11 


73 
45 


18.24 
7.94 


59 
64 


8 
9 


10 
2 


4 






5 



19 

2 


2.36 
.52 


70 

76 


10 






1 


1 


2 
573 


.17 


79 


Drawing 
Score 


S-P 


T-P 


F-P 


FL-P 


Total 


Per cent 


T-Score 



1 


2 
3 




2 
1 




4 
4 


99.65 
98.95 


23 

27 


2 
3 


4 

4 


2 
3 


3 

7 


3 
4 


12 
18 


97.56 
94.94 


30 
34 


4 

5 


3 
13 


10 
6 


3 
9 


6 

8 


22 
36 


91.45 
86.39 


36 
39 


6 

7 


11 

15 


6 
14 


8 
17 


8 
16 


33 
62 


80.37 
72.08 


41 
44 


8 
9 


14 
5 


7 
9 


14 
14 


7 
15 


42 
43 


63.00 
55.58 


47 
49 


10 
11 


13 
15 


25 
19 


11 
10 


19 
9 


68 ■ 
53 


45.90 
35.34 


51 

54 


12 
13 


18 
14 


16 
9 


7 
13 


11 

8 


52 
44 


26.18 
17.80 


56 
59 


14 
15 


8 
6 


9 
5 


6 

7 


12 

7 


35 
25 


10.91 
5.67 


62 
66 


16 
17 


5 

1 


1 
2 


1 
1 


5 

1 


12 
5 


2.44 
.96 


70 
73 


18 
19 


1 




1 





2 



.35 


77 


20 






1 




1 


.09 


81 



APPENDIX B 



123 



TABLE 8 

Distribution of scores made by 541 7B-grade pupils in a 10-point com- 
pletion test and a 20-point free recall drawing test which followed imme- 
diately each of four varied presentations of "The Growth of Cities and 
Their Problems" on April 21, 1921. Original steps converted into T-Scale 
units, each of which represents one-tenth of a standard deviation from the 
mean of the group. 



Group : 
Completion 
Score 


B 
S-P 


C 
T-P 


D 
F-P 


A 
FL-P 


Total 


Per cent ex- 
ceeding plus 
half those 
reaching : 


T-Score 




1 


1 
12 


5 
4 


1 
4 


4 
10 


11 
30 


99.17 
95.37 


26 
33 


2 
3 


23 
25 


16 

28 


6 
10 


18 
23 


63 

86 


86.76 
72.96 


39 
44 


4 
5 


21 
9 


25 

27 


14 
24 


26 
23 


86 
83 


57.04 
41.39 


48 
52 


6 

7 


17 
9 


16 
12 


24 
30 


17 
9 


74 
60 


26.85 
14.44 


56 
61 


8 
9 


8 
2 


8 
3 


16 

8 




32 
13 


5.93 
1.76 


66 
71 


10 




2 


1 




3 
541 


.28 


78 


Drawing 
Score 


S-P 


T-P 


F-P 


FL-P 


Total 


Per cent 


T- Score 



1 


3 



2 
1 


1 



3 
2 


9 
3 


99.35 
98.24 


25 
29 


2 
3 


3 
6 


2 

4 



2 


2 
3 


7 
15 


97.31 
95.28 


31 
33 


4 
5 


5 

8 


5 
8 


3 
3 


5 

7 


18 
26 


92.22 
88.15 


36 
38 


6 

7 


7 
14 


18 
21 


11 
10 


6 
10 


42 
55 


81.85 

72.87 


41 
44 


8 
9 


16 
16 


14 
18 


9 

8 


6 
16 


44 

58 


63.70 
54.26 


46 
49 


10 
11 


11 
10 


7 
4 


12 
14 


13 
15 


43 
43 


44.91 
36.94 


51 
53 


12 
13 


3 

7 


9 
10 


9 
16 


11 
13 


32 
46 


30.00 
22.78 


55 

57 


14 
15 


6 
8 


9 
6 


13 
12 


5 
4 


32 
29 


15.56 
9.91 


60 
63 


16 
17 


4 
1 


2 

1 


5 
6 


4 
3 


15 
11 


5.83 
3.43 


66 
68 


18 
19 




4 

2 


3 



2 

1 


9 
3 


1.57 
.46 


72 
76 


20 






1 




1 


.09 


81 



511 



124 



COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS 



TABLE 9 

Distribution of scores made by 256 selected 7B-grade pupils in the 
three tests which followed immediately each of four varied presentations of 
"The Study of a Mountain Glacier" on March 31, 1921. Original steps 
converted into T-Scale units, each of which represents one-tenth of a 
standard deviation from the mean of the group. 















Per cent ex- 




Group: 


A 


B 


C 


D 




ceeding plus 
half those 




Yes-No 


S-P 


T-P 


F-P 


FL-P 


Total 


reaching : 


T-Score 


-13-12 






1 




1 


99.8 


21 


-11-10 






4 




4 


98.8 


27 


- 9- 8 


1 


2 


2 




5 


97.1 


31 


- 7- 6 


2 


1 


3 


1 


7 


94.7 


34 


- 5- 4 


2 


1 


5 


2 


10 


91.4 


30 


- 3- 2 


4 


3 


2 


2 


11 


87.3 


39 


-1.99- 0.00 


6 


6 


6 


10 


28 


79.7 


42 


0.01- 2.00 


8 


3 


7 


6 


24 


69.5 


45 


3- 4 


7 


5 


9 


6 


27 


59.6 


48 


5- 6 


8 


5 


7 


10 


30 


48.4 


50 


7- 8 


6 


7 


4 


5 


22 


38.3 


53 


9-10 


6 


6 


6 


6 


24 


29.3 


55 


11-12 


4 


7 


1 


5 


17 


21.3 


58 


13-14 


2 


4 


1 


7 


14 


15.2 


60 


15-16 


4 


3 


1 


2 


10 


10.5 


62 


17-18 


1 


4 


3 


1 


9 


6.8 


65 


19-20 


2 


3 


1 




6 


3.9 


68 


21-22 


1 


3 


1 




5 


1.8 


71 


27-28 




1 




1 


2 
256 


.4 


77 


Completion 


S-P 


T-P 


F-P 


FL-P 


Total 


Per cent 


T-Score 





3 








1 


4 


99.2 


26 


1 


3 


9 


1 


4 


17 


95.1 


33 


2 


14 


13 


12 


10 


49 


82.2 


41 


3 


16 


20 


19 


12 


67 


59.6 


48 


4 


12 


10 


10 


14 


46 


37.5 


53 


5 


9 


10 


6 


8 


33 


22.1 


58 


6 


7 


2 


10 


6 


25 


10.7 


62 


7 






4 


7 


11 


3.7 


68 


8 






2 


1 


3 


1.0 


73 


9 








1 


1 
256 


.2 


79 


Drawing 


S-P 


T-P 


F-P 


FL-P 


Total 


Per cent 


T-Score 





8 


1 


8 


3 


20 


96.1 


32 


1 


19 


21 


5 


1 


46 


83.2 


40 


2 


19 


21 


7 


3 


50 


64.5 


46 


3 


7 


6 


8 


4 


25 


49.8 


50 


4 


7 


5 


8 


6 


26 


39.8 


53 


5 


2 


2 


4 


10 


18 


31.3 


55 


6 


2 


5 


14 


13 


34 


21.1 


58 


7 




1 


3 


3 


7 


13.1 


61 


8 




1 


5 


11 


17 


8.4 


64 


9 








2 


2 


4.7 


67 


10 




1 


1 


6 


8 


2.7 


69 


11 






1 


1 


2 


.8 


74 


12 








1 


1 


.2 


79 



256 



APPENDIX B 



125 



TABLE 10 

Distribution of scores made by 256 selected 7B- 
three tests which followed immediately each of the four 
of "The Earth and Worlds Beyond," on April 7, 1921. 
verted into T-Scale irnits, each of which represent one 
deviation from the mean of the group : 

Group: D A B C 



Yes-No 
-11-10 

- 9- 8 

- 7- 6 

- 5- 4 
-3-2 
-1.99-0.00 

0.01-2.00 

3- 4 

5- 6 

7- 8 

9-10 
11-12 
13-14 
15-16 
17-18 
19-20 
21-22 
23-24 

Completion 
Score 

1 
2 
3 
4 
6 
6 
7 
8 

Drawing 
Score 



1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 
11 
12 
13 
14 
16 
16 
17 
18 



S-P 



1 
1 

4 
5 
11 
9 
8 
6 
5 
5 
4 
2 
2 

1 



S-P 

4 

11 

11 

12 

14 

10 



2 



S-P 

21 

10 

13 

6 

5 

1 

5 





1 

2 



T-P 

1 



1 

1 

3 

3 

7 
11 

9 
11 

3 

6 

2 

4 

1 

1 



T-P 
6 

23 

14 
9 



T-P 
11 
14 
14 

4 

9 

6 

2 

1 

1 

1 

















1 



F-P 



1 
1 
4 
6 
5 
7 
5 
9 
6 
10 
6 
2 
2 



F-P 

5 

11 

27 

5 

10 

3 

2 

1 



F-P 
3 
3 
7 
7 
9 
7 
6 
6 
3 
3 




FL-P 



2 

3 
4 
4 
12 
5 
9 
7 
7 
5 

1 
1 
3 
1 



FL-P 

4 

8 
12 
13 
15 

6 

1 

3 

2 



FL-P 
1 
2 
2 
9 
7 
7 
3 
5 
6 
3 
5 
4 
1 
1 
3 
3 
1 



Total 

1 



5 

3 
10 
17 
21 
41 
28 
37 
22 
28 
18 
10 

6 

4 

3 

2 
256 

Total 
19 
53 
64 
39 
47 
21 

5 

6 

2 
256 

Total 
36 
29 
36 
26 
30 
21 
16 
12 
10 



2 
2 
4 
4 
3 
1 

1 

256 



grade pupils in the 
varied presentations 
Original steps eon- 
tenth of a standard 



Per cent ex- 
ceeding plus 
half those 
reaching : 
99.8 
99.6 
98.6 
97.1 
94.5 
89.3 
81.8 
69.7 
56.3 
43.6 
32.0 
22.3 
13.3 
7.8 
4.7 
2.7 
1.4 
.4 



Per cent 
96.3 
82.2 
59.4 
39.3 
22.5 

9.2 

4.1 

2.0 
.4 



Per cent 
93.0 
80.3 
67.6 
55.5 
44.5 
34.6 
27.3 
21.9 
17.6 
14.1 
11.1 

8.2 

6.3 

5.5 

4.3 

2.7 

1.4 
.6 

.2 



'-Score 
21 
24 
28 
31 
34 
38 
41 
45 
48 
52 
55 
58 
61 
64 
67 

69 . 
72 
77 



-Score 
32 
41 
48 
53 
58 
63 
67 
71 
77 



T-Score 
35 
41 
45 
49 
51 
54 
56 
58 
59 
61 
62 
64 
65 
66 
67 
69 
72 
75 
78 



126 



COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS 



TABLE 11 

Distribution of scores made by 256 selected 7B-grade pupils in the 
three tests which followed immediately each of the four varied presentations 
of "The Southern States," on April 14, 1921. Original steps converted into 
T-Scale units, each of which represents one-tenth of a standard deviation 
from the mean of the group: 















Per cent ex- 




Group: 


C 


D 


A 


B 




ceeding plus 
half those 




Yes-No 


S-P 


T-P 


F-P 


FL-P 


Total 


reaching : 


T-Score 


- 3- 2 


2 






1 


3 


99.4 


25 


-1.99-0.00 


1 









1 


98.6 


28 


0.01-2.00 





2 


3 


1 


6 


97.3 


31 


3- 4 


3 


1 








4 


95.3 


33 


5- 6 


4 


5 


2 


1 


12 


92.2 


36 


7- 8 


7 


5 


2 


2 


16 


86.7 


39 


9-10 


4 


6 


3 


2 


15 


80.7 


41 


11-12 


6 


7 


8 


3 


24 


73.0 


44 


13-14 


7 


5 


6 


7 


25 


63.5 


47 


15-16 


7 


6 


9 


6 


28 


53.1 


49 


17-18 


4 


6 


8 


7 


25 


42.8 


52 


19-20 


4 


8 


9 


9 


30 


32.0 


55 


21-22 


7 


5 


7 


5 


24 


21.5 


58 


23-24 


3 


2 


5 


7 


17 


13.5 


61 


25-26 


3 


4 





6 


13 


7.6 


64 


27-28 


1 


1 





2 


4 


4.3 


67 


29-30 











3 


3 


2.9 


69 


31-32 








1 


2 


3 


1.8 


71 


33-34 


1 


1 


1 




3 
256 


.6 


75 


Completion 


S-P 


T-P 


F-P 


FL-P 


Total 


Per cent 


T-Score 







4 


1 


1 


6 


98.8 


27 


1 


3 


4 


4 


1 


12 


95.3 


33 


2 


13 


6 


5 


6 


30 


87.1 


39 


3 


19 


15 


19 


11 


64 


68.8 


45 


4 


7 


18 


16 


12 


52 


46.1 


51 


5 


11 


8 


8 


13 


40 


28.1 


56 


6 


6 


7 


6 


16 


35 


13.5 


61 


7 


4 


1 


6 


3 


14 


3.9 


68 


8 


1 


1 




1 


3 
256 


.6 


75 


Drawing 


S-P 


T-P 


F-P 


FL-P 


Total 


Per cent 


T-Score 





1 




1 




2 


99.6 


23 


1 














99.2 


26 


2 


1 


2 


1 


2 


6 


98.0 


29 


3 


3 


3 





1 


7 


95.5 


33 


4 


3 


5 


1 


3 


12 


91.8 


36 


5 


8 


2 


2 


3 


15 


86.5 


39 


6 


5 


6 


5 


4 


20 


79.7 


42 


7 


5 


9 


10 


6 


30 


69.9 


45 


8 


8 


4 


7 


2 


21 


60.0 


47 


9 





5 


9 


7 


21 


51.8 


50 


10 


7 


10 


4 


12 


33 


41.2 


52 


11 


7 


5 


8 


6 


26 


29.7 


55 


12 


7 


6 


3 


6 


22 


20.3 


58 


13 


5 


2 


8 


3 


18 


12.5 


62 


14 


1 


4 


3 


7 


15 


6.1 


65 


15 


1 


1 


1 


2 


5 


2.1 


70 


16 


2 









2 


.8 


74 


17 






1 




1 


.2 


79 



256 



APPENDIX B 



127 



TABLE 12 

Distribution of scores made by 256 selected 7B-grade pupils in the 
three tests which followed immediately each of four varied presentations of 
"The Growth of Cities and Their Problems, " on April 21, 1921. Original 
steps converted into T-Scale units, each of which represents one-tenth of a 



naara aevi 


aiion ir 


om me n 


lean oi i 


ne group 




Per cent ex- 
ceeding plus 
half those 




Yes-No 


S-P 


T-P 


F-P 


FL-P 


Total 


reaching : 


T-Score 


3- 4 




1 




1 


2 


99.6 


23 


5- 6 



















7- 8 









1 


1 


99.0 


27 


9-10 



















11-12 







1 





1 


98.6 


28 


13-14 


1 


1 


2 





4 


97.7 


30 


15-16 


2 


1 


2 


5 


10 


94.9 


34 


17-18 


4 


4 


6 


4 


18 


89.5 


37 


19-20 


3 


4 


6 


3 


16 


82.8 


41 


21-22 


11 


4 


12 


7 


34 


73.0 


44 


23-24 


7 


11 


8 


8 


34 


59.8 


48 


25-26 


11 


9 


10 


10 


40 


45.3 


51 


27-28 


7 


9 


10 


13 


39 


29.9 


55 


29-30 


5 


9 


3 


3 


20 


18.4 


59 


31-32 


7 


5 


3 


2 


17 


11.1 


62 


33-34 


3 


4 


1 


6 


14 


5.1 


66 


35-36 


2 


1 




1 


4 


1.6 


71 


37-38 


1 


1 






2 
256 


.4 


77 


Completion 


S-P 


T-P 


F-P 


FL-P 


Total 


Per cent 


T-Score 





1 


1 





1 


3 


99.4 


25 


1 


7 


3 


2 


4 


16 


95.7 


33 


2 


10 


11 


5 


9 


35 


85.7 


39 


3 


16 


14 


8 


10 


48 


69.5 


45 


4 


13 


10 


7 


17 


47 


51.0 


50 


5 


2 


13 


15 


11 


41 


33.8 


54 


6 


9 


2 


8 


7 


26 


20.7 


58 


7 


4 


5 


15 


5 


29 


10.0 


63 


8 


2 


3 


4 




9 


2.5 


70 


9 




1 






1 


.6 


75 


10 




1 






1 
256 


.2 


79 


Drawing 


S-P 


T-P 


F-P 


FL-P 


Total 


Per cent 


T-Score 





3 


1 


1 


1 


6 


98.8 


27 


1 








1 


1 


97.5 


30 


2 


2 


1 






3 


96.7 


32 


3 


5 




2 




7 


94.7 


34 


4 


1 


1 


2 


3 


7 


92.0 


36 


5 


5 


6 


3 


4 


18 


87.1 


39 


6 


1 


10 


6 


3 


20 


79.7 


42 


7 


8 


12 


5 


2 


27 


70.5 


45 


8 


6 


8 


6 


2 


22 


60.9 


47 


9 


10 


7 


5 


10 


32 


50.5 


50 


10 


6 


2 


7 


5 


20 


40.2 


52 


11 


3 





8 


10 


21 


32.2 


55 


12 


2 


2 


4 


7 


15 


25.2 


57 


13 


2 


6 


7 


5 


20 


18.4 


59 


14 


3 


3 


4 


2 


12 


12.1 


62 


15 


5 


3 


4 


2 


14 


7.0 


65 


16 


1 







3 


4 


3.5 


68 


17 


1 







3 


4 


2.0 


71 


18 




1 







1 


1.0 


73 


19 




1 




1 


2 


.4 


77 



256 



128 



COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS 



TABLE 13 

Distribution of scores made by 513 7B-grade pupils in two tests which 
were submitted ten weeks after the presentation of "The Study of a Moun- 
tain Glacier," on March 31, 1921: 



Completion 
T-Score 


Study (A) 
Pupils 


Teacher (B) 
Pupils 


Film (C) 
Pupils 


Film-Lecture (D) 
Pupils 


27 
34 


6 
28 


7 
27 


10 
18 


1 

8 


41 
46 


35 

28 


36 
22 


40 
31 


25 
38 


51 
55 


15 
3 


15 

7 


18 
10 


28 
16 


59 
64 


3 


2 


12 
6 


10 
6 


68 






1 


1 



Means : 



41.90 



41.92 



44.91 



48.46 



Abbreviated 

Drawing Test 

T-Score 


Study (A) 
Pupils 


Teacher (B) 
Pupils 


Fihn (C) 
Pupils 


Film-Lecture (D) 
Pupils 


32 
38 


11 
17 


3 
16 


11 
11 


11 
6 


45 
50 


40 
20 


43 
20 


37 
23 


11 

18 


54 
58 


21 
5 


22 
5 


25 
14 


25 

17 


62 
65 


3 



5 
1 


12 
3 


19 
8 


68 
74 


1 


1 


8 



15 
2 


78 






1 


2 



Means : 



46.41 



47.93 



49.86 



54.72 



APPENDIX B 



129 



TABLE 14 

Distribution of scores made by 525 7B-grade pupils in two tests which 
were submitted nine weeks after the presentation of ' ' The Earth and Worlds 
Beyond," on April 7, 1921 : 



Completion 
T-Score 


Study (D) 
Pupils 


Teacher (A) 
Pupils 


Film (B) 
Pupils 


Film-Lecture (C) 
Pupils 


32 
40 


8 
33 


26 
46 


18 
53 


17 
36 


46 

51 


35 
19 


36 
10 


36 

7 


42 

20 


55 
59 


21 
14 


3 




6 

1 


8 
10 


63 
67 


3 




1 


1 


5 
8 


72 
82 








1 
1 



Means : 



47.56 



41.56 



42.30 



47.10 



Abbreviated 

Drawing Test 

T-Score 


Study (D) 
Pupils 


Teacher (A) 
Pupils 


Film (B) 
Pupils 


Film-Lecture (C) 
Pupils 


35 
44 


27 
29 


21 
46 


10 
20 


15 

45 


49 

52 


13 
16 


18 
16 


24 
16 


13 
13 


55 
68 


17 
9 


8 
4 


15 
15 


12 
12 


61 
65 


13 
3 


3 
3 


12 
6 


17 
8 


68 
72 


4 

2 


2 



2 
2 


6 
6 


79 




1 




1 



Means : 



49.25 



47.03 



51.93 



51.69 



130 



COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS 



TABLE 15 

Distribution of scores made by 508 7B-grade pupils in two tests which 
were submitted eight weeks after the presentation of "The Southern 
States, ' ' on April 14, 1921 : 



Completion 
T-Score 


Study (C) 
Pupils 


Teacher (D) 
Pupils 


Film (A) 
Pupils 


Film-Lecture (B) 
Pupils 


27 
33 


6 
22 


3 
7 


5 
21 


4 
14 


39 
44 


32 
37 


30 
38 


24 
26 


26 
36 


49 
54 


23 
12 


28 
14 


28 

7 


24 
5 


59 
64 


11 
2 


4 

a 


4 
1 


5 
2 


70 


2 






2 



Means: 



43.92 



44.96 



42.74 



43.87 



Abbreviated 

Drawing Test 

T-Score 


Study (C) 
Pupils 


Teacher (D) 
Pupils 


Film (A) 
Pupils 


Fihn-Lecture (B) 
Pupils 


23 
28 


1 




1 


2 
3 


1 
1 


35 
41 


14 
19 


12 
15 


10 
18 


15 
14 


46 
52 


36 
32 


33 
22 


21 
25 


26 
23 


57 
63 


26 
12 


24 
12 


19 
9 


25 
8 


68 
72 


6 
1 


4 
4 


7 



3 

1 


77 


1 




2 


1 



Means : 



50.00 



50.46 



49.69 



49.36 



APPENDIX B 



131 



TABLE 16 

Distribution of scores made by 487 7B-grade pupils in two tests which 
were submitted seven weeks after the presentation of "Growth of Cities and 
Their Problems." on April 21, 1921: 



iompletion 
T-Score 


Study (B) 
Pupils 


Teacher (C) 
Pupils 


Film (D) 
Pupils 


Film-Lecture (A) 
Pupils 


26 
33 


14 
20 


10 
27 


3 
9 


14 

26 


39 
44 


36 

18 


33 
41 


16 
27 


27 
23 


48 
62 


15 
5 


18 
4 


31 
22 


16 
6 


56 
61 


2 



6 

1 


8 
5 


1 


66 


1 




3 





Means: 



38.85 



40.68 



46.53 



39.14 



Abbreviated 

Drawing Test 

T-Score 


Study (B) 
Pupils 


Teacher (C) 
Pupils 


21 
32 



7 


1 
12 


41 

47 


30 
22 


32 
28 


52 
66 


18 
19 


25 
19 


61 
65 


7 
6 


10 
4 


69 
73 


3 


6 

1 


79 




2 



Fihn (D) 
Pupils 


Fihn-Lecture (A) 
Pupils 



3 


1 
13 


12 
16 


19 
29 


32 
21 


22 
17 


25 
10 


4 
5 


3 
2 



3 



Means: 



49.07 



49.23 



54.10 



48.35 



